 INTRODUCTION OF HISTORY OF FLORENCE HISTORY OF FLORENCE and of the affairs of Italy, Volume 1, by Niccolò Machiavelli. TRANSLATOR UN KNOWN INTRODUCTION Niccolò Machiavelli, the first great Italian historian and one of the most eminent political writers of any age or country, was born at Florence, May 3, 1469. He was of an old though not wealthy Tuscan family, his father, who was a jurist, dying when Niccolò was 16 years old. We know nothing of Machiavelli's youth and little about his studies. He does not seem to have received the usual humanistic education of his time, as he knew no Greek. The first notice of Machiavelli is in 1498, when we find him holding the office of secretary in the second chancery of the Signoria, which office he retained till the downfall of the Florentine Republic in 1512. His unusual ability was soon recognized, and in 1500 he was sent on a mission to Louis XII of France, and afterwards on an embassy to Caesar Borgia, the lord of Romagna, at Orbino. Machiavelli's report and description of this and subsequent embassies to this prince shows his undisguised admiration for the courage and cunning of Caesar, who was a master in the application of the principles afterwards exposed in such a skillful and uncompromising master by Machiavelli and his prince. The limits of this introduction will not permit us to follow with any detail the many important duties with which he was charged by his native state, all of which he fulfilled with the utmost fidelity and with consummate skill. When, after the battle of Ravenna in 1512, the Holy League determined upon the downfall of Pier Sodierni, gonfalonieri of the Florentine Republic, and the restoration of the Medici, the efforts of Machiavelli, who was an ardent Republican, were in vain. The troops he had helped organize fled before the Spaniards, and the Medici were returned to power. Machiavelli attempted to conciliate his new masters, but he was deprived of his office, and being accused in the following year of the participation in the conspiracy of Bokali and Caponi, he was imprisoned and tortured, though afterwards set at liberty by Pope Leo X. He now retired to a small estate near San Casciano, seven miles from Florence. Here he devoted himself to political and historical studies, and though apparently retired from public life, his letters show the deep and passionate interest he took in the political vicissitudes, through which Italy was then passing, and in all of which the singleness of purpose with which he continued to advance to his native Florence is clearly manifested. It was during his retirement, upon his little estate at San Casciano, that Machiavelli wrote The Prince, the most famous of all his writings, and here also he began in much more extensive work his Discourses on the Decades of Livy, which continued to occupy him for several years. These Discourses, which do not form a continuous commentary on Livy, give Machiavelli an opportunity to express his own views on the government of the state, a task for which his long and varied political experience, and an assiduous study of the ancients rendered him eminently qualified. The Discourses, and The Prince, written at the same time, supplement each other, and are really one work. Indeed, the Treatise, The Art of War, though not written till 1520, should be mentioned here because of its intimate connection with these two Treatises, it being, in fact, a further development of some of the thoughts expressed in The Discourse See. The Prince, a short work divided into 26 books, is the best known of all Machiavelli's writings. Herein he expresses in his own masterly way his views on the founding of a new state, taking for his type and model Caesar Borgia, though the latter had failed in his schemes for the consolidation of his power in the Romagna. The principles here laid down were the natural outgrowth of the confused political conditions of his time, and as in the Principe, as its name indicates, Machiavelli is chiefly concerned with the government of a prince. So the diascorie treat principally of the Republic, and here Machiavelli's model Republic was the Roman Commonwealth, the most successful and enduring example of popular government. Free Rome is the embodiment of his political idea of the state. Much that Machiavelli says in this treatise is as true today and holds as good as the day it was written, and to us there is much that is of a special importance. To select a chapter almost at random, let us take Book 1, Chapter 15. Quote, Public affairs are easily managed in a city where the body of the people is not corrupt and where equality exists. There no principality can be established, nor can a Republic be established where there is no equality. No man has been more harshly judged than Machiavelli, especially in the two centuries following his death, but he has since found many able champions, and the tide has turned. The prince has been termed a manual for tyrants, the effect of which has been most pernicious. But were Machiavelli's doctrines really new? Did he discover them? He merely had the candor encouraged to write down what everybody was thinking and what everybody knew. He merely gives us the impression he had received from a long and intimate intercourse with princes in the affairs of state. It was Lord Bacon, I believe, who said that Machiavelli tells us what princes do, not what they ought to do. When Machiavelli takes Caesar Borgia as his model, he had no wise extols him as a hero, but merely as a prince, who has been capable of attending the end in view. The life of the state was the primary object. It must be maintained. And Machiavelli has laid down the principles, based on his study and wide experience by which this may be accomplished. He wrote from the point of view of the politician, not the moralist. What is good politics may be bad morals, and in fact, by a strange fatality, where morals and politics clash, the latter generally gets the upper hand. And while anyone contends that the principles set forth by Machiavelli in his prince or his discourses have entirely perished from the earth, has diplomacy been entirely stripped of fraud and duplicity, let anyone read the famous 18th chapter of the prince. In what manner princes should keep their faith? And he will be convinced that what was true nearly 400 years ago is quite as true today. Of the remaining works of Machiavelli the most important is the history of Florence, written between 1521 and 1525, and dedicated to Clement VII. The first book is merely a rapid review of the Middle Ages, the history of Florence beginning with Book II. Machiavelli's method has been censured for adhering at times too closely to the chroniclers, like Villani, Cambi, and Giovanni Cavacante, and at others rejecting their testimony without apparent reason, while in its details the authority of his history is often questionable. It is the straightforward, logical narrative which always holds the interest of the reader that is the greatest charm of the history. Of the other works of Machiavelli we mention here is comedies, the Mondrelaga, the Clesia, and his novel, Balfigor. After the downfall of the Republic and Machiavelli's release from prison in 1513, Fortune seems never again to have favored him. It is true that in 1520 Guiliano de Medici commissioned him to write his history of Florence, and he afterwards held a number of offices, yet these latter were entirely beneath his merits. He had been married in 1502 to Marietta Corsini, who bore him four sons and a daughter. He died on June 22, 1527, leaving his family in the greatest poverty, a sterling tribute to his honesty when one considers the many opportunities he doubtless had to enrich himself. Machiavelli's life was not without blemish. Few lives are. We must bear in mind the atmosphere of craft, hypocrisy, and poison in which he lived. His was the age of Caesar Borgia and of popes like the monster Alexander VI and Julius II. Whatever his faults may have been, Machiavelli was always an ardent patriot and an earnest supporter of popular government. It is true that he was willing to accept a prince if one could be found courageous enough and prudent enough to unite dismembered Italy for in the unity of his native land he saw the only hope of its salvation. Machiavelli is buried in the church of Santa Croce at Florence, beside the tomb of Michelangelo. His monument bears this inscription tanto nomini nulum par eulogium, and though this praise is doubtless exaggerated, he is the son of whom his country may be justly proud. End of introduction. Book 1, Chapter 1 of A History of Florence. This is the LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy, Volume 1 by Niccolò Machiavelli, translator unknown. Book 1, Chapter 1. Eruption of Northern people upon the Roman territories. Visigoths. Barbarians called in by Stilico. Vandals in Africa. Franks and Burgundians give their names to France and Burgundy. The Huns. Angles give the name to England. Attila, king of the Huns in Italy. Gensaric takes Rome. The Lombards. The people who inhabit the northern parts beyond the Rind and the Danube, living in a healthy and prolific region, frequently increase to such vast multitudes that part of them are compelled to abandon their native soil and seek a habitation in other countries. The method adopted when one of these provinces had to be relieved of its super abundant population was to divide into three parts, each containing an equal number of nobles and of people, of rich and of poor. The third, on whom the lot fell, then went in search of new abodes, leaving the remaining two-thirds in possession of their native country. These migrating masses destroyed the Roman empire by the facilities for settlement which the country offered when the emperors abandoned Rome, the ancient seat of their dominion, and fixed their residence at Constantinople, for by this step they exposed the western empire to the rapine of both their ministers and their enemies, the remoteness of their position preventing them either from seeing or providing for his necessities. To suffer the overthrow of such an extensive empire established by the blood of so many brave and virtuous men showed no less folly in the princes themselves than infidelity in their ministers, for not one eruption alone but many contributed to its ruin, and these barbarians exhibited much ability and perseverance in accomplishing their object. The first of these northern nations that invaded the empire after the Kimbrians, who were conquered by Gaius Marius, was the Visigoths, which name in our language signifies Western Goths. These, after some battles fought along its confines, long held their seat of dominion upon the Danube with consent of the emperors, and although moved by various causes they often attacked the Roman provinces, they were always kept in subjugation by the imperial forces. The emperor Theodosius conquered them with great glory, and, being wholly reduced to his power, they no longer selected a sovereign of their own, but satisfied with the terms which he granted them, lived and fought under his ensigns and authority. On the death of Theodosius, his sons Arcadius and Honorius succeeded to the empire, but not to the talents and fortune of their father, and the times became changed with the princes. Theodosius had appointed a governor to each of the three divisions of the empire, Rufinus to the eastern, to the west, Stilico, and Gildo to the African. Each of these, after the death of Theodosius, determined not to be governors merely, but to assume sovereign dominion over their respective provinces. Gildo and Rufinus were suppressed at their onset, but Stilico, concealing his design, ingratiated himself with the new emperors, and at the same time so disturbed their government, as to facilitate his occupation of it afterwards. To make the Visigoths their enemies, he advised that the accustomed stipend allowed to this people should be withheld, and as he thought these enemies would not be sufficient alone to disturb the empire, he contrived that the Burgundians, Franks, Vandals, and Alans, a northern people in search of new habitations, should assail the Roman provinces. That they might be better able to avenge themselves for the injury that they had sustained, the Visigoths, on being deprived of their subsidy, created Alaric their king, and having assailed the empire, succeeded after many reverses in overrunning Italy, and finally in pillaging Rome. After this victory, Alaric died, and his successor, Astolfis, having married Placidia, sister of the emperors, agreed with them to go to the relief of Gaul in Spain, which provinces had been assailed by the Vandals, Burgundians, Alans, and Franks, from the causes before mentioned. Hence it followed that the Vandals, who had occupied that part of Spain called Betica, now Andalusia, being pressed by the Visigoths and unable to resist them, were invited by Boniface, who governed Africa for the empire, to occupy that province, for, being in rebellion, he was afraid his heir would become known to the emperor. For these reasons the Vandals gladly undertook the enterprise, and under Gensaric, their king, became lords of Africa. At this time Theodosius, son of Arcadius, succeeded to the empire, and bestowing little attention on the affairs of the West, caused those who had taken possession, to think of securing their acquisitions. Thus the Vandals ruled Africa, the Alans, and Visigoths, Spain, while the Franks and Burgundians not only took Gaul, but each gave their name to the part they occupied, hence one is called France, the other Burgundy. The good fortune of these people brought fresh people to the destruction of the empire, one of which the Huns occupied the province of Pannonia, situated upon the nearer shore of the Danube, and which, from their name, is still called Hungary. To these disorders it must be added, that the emperor, seeing himself attacked on so many sides, to lessen the number of his enemies, began to treat first with the Vandals, then with the Franks, a course which diminished his own power, and increased that of the Barbarians. Nor was the island of Britain, which is now called England, secure from them, for the Britons, being apprehensive of those who had occupied Gaul, called the Angli, a people of Germany to their aid, and these, under Volterger and their king, first defended, and then drove them from the island, of which they took possession, and after themselves, named the country England. But the inhabitants, being robbed of their home, became desperate by necessity, and resolved to take possession of some other country, although they had been unable to defend their own. They therefore crossed the sea with their families, and settled in the country nearest to the beach, which from themselves is called Brittany. The Huns, who were said above to have occupied Pannonia, joining with other nations, such as the Zepedi, Erulai, Turingi, and Austro, or Eastern Goths, moved in search of new countries, not being able to enter France, which was defended by the forces of the Barbarians, came into Italy under Attila their king. He, a short time previously, in order to possess the entire monarchy, had murdered his brother Bleda, and having thus become very powerful, Anderec, king of the Zepedi, and Velomir, king of the Ostrogoths, became subject to him. Attila, having entered Italy, laid siege to Aquialia, where he remained without any obstacle for two years, wasting the country round, and dispersing the inhabitants. This, as will be related in its place, caused the origin of Venice. After the taking and ruin of Aquialia, he directed his course towards Rome, from the destruction of which he abstained at the entreaty of the Pontiff, his respect for whom was so great that he left Italy and retired into Austria, where he died. After the death of Attila, Velomir, king of the Ostrogoths, and the heads of the other nations, took arms against his son, Henry and Urik, slew the one and compelled the other, with his huns, to repass the Danube, and return to their country. While the Ostrogoths and Zepedi established themselves in Pannonia, and the Aeriali and Tiringi upon the further bank of the Danube, Attila, having left Italy, Valentinian emperor of the west, thought of restoring the country, and that he might be more ready to defend it against the barbarians, abandon Rome, and remove the seat of the government to Ravenna. The misfortunes which befell the western empire, caused the emperor, who resided at Constantinople, on many occasions to give up the possession of it to others, as a charge full of danger and expense. And sometimes without his permission, the Romans, seeing themselves so abandoned, created an emperor for their defense, or suffered some one to usurp their dominion. This occurred at the period of which we now speak, when Maximus, a Roman, after the death of Valentinian seized the government, and compelled Eudosia, widow of the late emperor, to take him for her husband. But she, being of imperial blood, scorned the connection of a private citizen, and being anxious to avenge herself for the insult, secretly persuaded Gensurik, king of the vandals, and master of Africa, to come to Italy, representing to him the advantage that he would derive from the undertaking, and the facility with which it might be accomplished. Tempted by the hope of booty, he came immediately, and finding Rome abandoned, plundered the city during fourteen days. He also ravaged many other places in Italy, and then, loaded with wealth, withdrew to Africa. The Romans, having returned to their city, and Maximus being dead, elected Avitus, a Roman as his successor. After this, several important events occurred, both in Italy, and in the countries beyond, and after the deaths of many emperors, the empire of Constantinople devolved upon Zeno, and that of Rome upon Orestes, and Augustulus, his son, who obtained the Soventry by fraud. While they were designing to hold by force what they had obtained by treachery, the Arioli and Turingi, who, after the death of Attila, as before remarked, had established themselves upon the further banks of the Danube, united in a league, and invaded Italy under Odoiker, their general. Into the districts which they left unoccupied, the Longobardi, or Longbards, also a northern people entered, led by Godogo, their king. Odoiker conquered and slew Orestes near Pavia, but Augustulus escaped. After this victory, that Rome might, with her change of power, also change her title, Odoiker, instead of using the imperial name, caused himself to be declared king of Rome. He was the first of those leaders who, at this period, overran the world and thought of settling in Italy, for the others, either from fear that they should not be able to hold the country, knowing that it might easily be relieved by the eastern emperors, or from some unknown cause, after plundering her, sought other countries wherein to establish themselves. End of Part 1 Chapter 1 Book 1, Chapter 2 of History of Florence. History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy, Volume 1, by Niccolò Machiavelli. Translator unknown. State of the Roman Empire under Zeno. Theodoric, King of the Astragoths. Character of Theodoric. Changes in the Roman Empire. New languages. New names. Theodoric dies. Belisarius in Italy. Totila takes Rome. Narces destroys the Goths. New form of government in Italy. Narces invites the Lombards into Italy. The Lombards change the form of government. At this time the ancient Roman Empire was governed by the following princes. Zeno, reigning in Constantinople, commanded the whole of the Eastern Empire. The Astragoths ruled Messia and Pannonia. The Visigoths, Suavi, and Alans held Gascany in Spain. The Vandals, Africa. The Franks and Burgundians, France, and the Eruli and Turingi, Italy. The Kingdom of the Astragoths had descended to Theodoric, Nephew of Velomir, who, being on terms of friendship with Zeno, the Eastern Emperor, wrote to him that his Astragoths thought it an injustice that they, being superior and valour to the people thereabout, should be inferior to them in dominion, and that it was impossible for him to restrain them within the limits of Pannonia. So, seeing himself under the necessity of allowing them to take arms and going search of new abodes, he wished first to acquaint Zeno with it, in order that he might provide for them by granting some country in which they might establish themselves, by his good favour with greater propriety and convenience. Zeno, partly from fear and partly from a desire to drive a doaker out of Italy, gave Theodoric permission to lead his people against him, and take possession of the country. Seeing his friends, the Zepidae in Pannonia, Theodoric marched into Italy, slew a doaker and his son, and moved by the same reason which had induced Valentinian to do so, established his court at Ravenna, and like a doaker took the title of King of Italy. Theodoric possessed great talents both for war and peace. In the former he was always conqueror, and in the latter he conferred very great benefits upon the cities and people under him. He distributed the Ostrogoths over the country, each district under its leader, that he might more conveniently command them in war and govern them in peace. He enlarged Ravenna, restored Rome, and with the exception of military discipline conferred upon the Romans every honour. He kept within their proper bounds, wholly by the influence of his character, all the barbarian kings who occupied the empire. He built towns and fortresses between the point of the Adriatic and the Alps, in order with greater facility to impede the passage of any new hordes of barbarians who might design to assail Italy. And if, towards the latter end of his life, so many virtues had not been sullied by acts of cruelty caused by various jealousies of his people, such as the death of Samachus and Boethius, men of great holiness. Every point of his character would have deserved the highest praise. By his virtue and goodness, not only Rome and Italy, but every part of the Western Empire, freed from the continual troubles which they had suffered from the frequent influx of barbarians, acquired new vigor, and began to live in an orderly and civilized manner. For surely if any times were truly miserable for Italy and the provinces overrun by barbarians, they were those which occurred from Arcadius and Anorius to Theodoric. If we only consider the evils which arise to a republic or a kingdom by a change of prince or of government, not by foreign interference but by civil discord, in which we might see how even slight variation suffice to ruin the most powerful kingdoms or states. We may then easily imagine how much Italy and the other Roman provinces suffered when they not only changed their form of government and their princes, but also their laws, customs, modes of living, religion, language, and name. Any one of these changes by itself, without being united with others, might with thinking of it to say nothing of the seeing and suffering, and fuse terror into the strongest minds. From these causes proceeded the ruin as well as the origin and extension of many cities. Among those which were ruined were Aquialia, Luni, Tuisi, Popolonia, Fiazzoli, and many others. The new cities were Venice, Siena, Ferrara, Aquila, and other towns and castles which for brevity we omit. Those which were extended were Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Milan, Naples, and Bologna, to all of which may be added the ruin and restoration of Rome and many other cities not previously mentioned. From this devastation and new population arose new languages as we see in the different dialects of France, Spain, and Italy, which partaking of the native idiom of the new people and of the old Roman formed a new manner of discourse. Besides, not only were the names of the provinces changed, but also of lakes, rivers, seas, and men, for France, Spain, and Italy are full of fresh names, wholly different from the ancient, and as omitting many others. We see that the Po, the Guarda, and the Archipelago are names quite different from those which the ancients used, while instead of Caesar and Pompey, we have Peter, Matthew, John, etc. Among so many variations, that of religion was not of little importance. For, while combating the customs of the ancient faith with the miracles of the new, very serious troubles and discords were created among men. And if the Christians had been united in one faith, fewer disorders would have followed, but the contentions among themselves, of the churches of Rome, Greece, and Ravenna, joined to those of the heretic sects with the Catholics, served in many ways to render the world miserable. Africa is a proof of this, having suffered more horrors from the Aryan sect, whose doctrines were believed by the vandals than from any avarice or natural cruelty of the people themselves. Living amid so many persecutions, the countenances of men or witness of the terrible impressions upon their minds. For, besides the evils they suffered from the disordered state of the world, they scarcely could have recourse to the help of God, in whom the unhappy, hopeful relief, for the greater part of them, being uncertain what divinity they ought to address, died miserably, without help, and without hope. When Ben I, who put a stop to so many evils, Theodoric deserves the highest praise, for during the thirty-eight years he reigned in Italy, he brought the country to such a state of greatness, that her previous sufferings were no longer recognizable. But at his death the kingdom descended to Attalaric, son of Amalassantha, his daughter. In the malice of fortune, not being yet exhausted, the old evils soon returned, for Attalaric died soon after his grandfather, and the kingdom, coming into the possession of his mother, she was betrayed by Theodotus, whom she had called to assist her in the government. He put her to death and made himself king, and having thus become odious to the Ostrogoths, the emperor Justinian entertained the hope of driving him out of Italy. Justinian appointed Belisarius to the command of this expedition, as he had already conquered Africa, expelled the vandals, and reduced the country to the imperial rule. Belisarius took possession of Sicily, and from thence, passing into Italy, occupied Naples and Rome. The Goths, seeing this, slew Theodotus their king, whom they considered the cause of their misfortune, and elected Vitigays in his stead, who, after some skirmishes, was besieged and taken by Belisarius at Ravenna. But before he had time to secure the advantages of his victory, Belisarius was recalled by Justinian, and Johannes and Vitalius were appointed in his place. Their principles and practices were so different from those of Belisarius that the Goths took courage and created Yodovatus, governor of Verona, their king. After Yodovatus, who was slain, came to Tyla, who routed the imperial forces, took Tuscany and Naples, and recovered nearly the whole of what Belisarius had taken from them. On this account Justinian determined to send him into Italy again. But coming only with a small force, he lost the reputation which his former victories had won for him, and less time than he had taken to acquire it. To Tyla, being at Ostia with his forces, took Rome before his eyes. But being unable to hold or to leave the city, he destroyed the greater part of it, drove out the citizens, and took the senators away with him. Being little of Belisarius, he led his people into Calabria, to attack the force which had been sent from Greece. Belisarius, seeing the city abandoned, turned his mind to the performance of an honourable work. Viewing the ruins of Rome, he determined to rebuild her walls and recall her inhabitants with as little delay as possible. But fortune was opposed to this laudable enterprise. For Justinian, being at this time assailed by the Parthians, recalled him, and his duty to his sovereign compelled him to abandon Italy to Tyla, who again took Rome, but not treat her with such severity as upon the formal occasion. For at the entreaty of St. Benedict, who in those days had great reputation for sanctity, he endeavored to restore her. In the meantime, Justinian, having erased matters with the Parthians, again thought of sending a force to the relief of Italy. But the Sclavi, another northern people, having crossed the Danube and attacked Illyria and Thrace, prevented him, so that Tyla held almost the whole country. Having conquered the Slavonians, Justinian sent Narces, a eunuch, a man of great military talent, who, having arrived in Italy, routed and slew Tyla. The Goths who had escaped sought refuge in Pavia, where they created Teus their king. On the other hand, Narces, after the victory, took Rome, and coming to an engagement with Teus near Nocora, slew him and routed his army. By this victory the power of the Goths in Italy was quite annihilated, after having existed for seventy years from the coming of Theodoric to the death of Teus. No sooner was Italy delivered from the Goths than Justinian died, and was succeeded by Justin, his son, who, at the instigation of Sophia, his wife, recalled Narces and sent Longinus in his stead. Like those who preceded him, he made his abode at Ravenna, and besides this gave a new form to the government of Italy, for he did not appoint governors of the provinces as the Goths had done, but in every city and town of importance placed a ruler whom he called a duke. Neither in this arrangement did he respect Rome more than the other cities, for having set aside the consuls and the senate, names which up to this time had been proved, he placed her under a duke, who was sent every year from Ravenna, and called her the Duchy of Rome, while to him who were made in Ravenna, and govern the whole of Italy for the emperor, was given the name of Exarch. This division of the country greatly facilitated the ruin of Italy, and gave the Lombards an early occasion of occupying it. Narces was greatly enraged with the emperor for having recalled him from the government of the province, which he had won with his own valour and blood, while Sophia, not content with the injury done by withdrawing him, treated him in the most offensive manner, saying she wished him to come back, that he might spin with the other eunuchs. Full of indignation, Narces persuaded Albion, king of the Lombards, who then reigned in Pannonia to invade and take possession of Italy. The Lombards, as was said before, occupied those places upon the Danube, which had been vacated, by the Aeruli and Turingi, when a doaker their king led them into Italy. Where, having been established for some time, their dominions were held by Albion, a man ferocious and bold, under whom they crossed the Danube, and coming to an engagement with Cunamund, king of the Zepedi, who held Pannonia, conquered and slew him. Albion, finding Rosamund, daughter of Cunamund, among the captives, took her to wife, and made himself sovereign of Pannonia, and moved by his savage nature, caused the skull of Cunamund to be formed into a cup, from which, in memory of the victory he drank. Being invited into Italy by Narces, with whom he had been in friendship during the war with the Goths, he left Pannonia to the Huns, who, after the death of Attila, had returned to their country. Finding on his arrival the province divided into so many parts, he presently occupied Pavia, Milan, Verona, Bichenza, and the whole of Tuscany, and the greater part of Flaminia, which is now called Vremagna. These great and rapid acquisitions made him think the conquest of Italy already secured. He therefore gave a great feast of Verona, and, having become elevated with wine, ordered the skull of Cunamund to be filled, and caused it to be presented to the queen Rosamund, who sat opposite, saying loud enough for her to hear, that upon occasion of such great joy she should drink with her father. These words were like a dagger to the lady's bosom, and she resolved to have revenge. Knowing that Helchemus, a noble lombard, was in love with one of her maids, she arranged with the young woman, that Homochus, without being acquainted with the fact, should sleep with her instead of his mistress. Having affected her design, Rosamund discovered herself to Helmachus, and gave him the choice of either killing Albion, and taking herself and the kingdom as his reward, or of being put to death as the ravisher of the king. Helmachus consented to destroy Albion, but after the murder, finding they could not occupy the kingdom, and fearful that the lombards would put them to death for the love they bore to Albion, they seized the royal treasure and fled with it to Longinus at Ravenna, who received them favorably. During these troubles the emperor Justinus died, and was succeeded by Tiberius, who, occupied in the wars with the Parthians, could not attend the affairs of Italy, and this seeming to Longinus to present an opportunity by means of Rosamund and her wealth of becoming king of the lombards and of the whole of Italy, he communicated his design to her, persuaded her to destroy Helmachus and to take him for her husband. To this end, having prepared poisoned wine, she, with her own hand, presented it to Helmachus, who complained of thirst as he had come from the bath. Having drunk half of it he suspected the truth, from the unusual sensation it occasioned, and compelled her to drink the remainder, so that in a few hours both came to their end, and Longinus was deprived of the hope of becoming king. In the meantime the lombards, having drawn themselves together in Pavia, which was become the principal seat of their empire, made Clefis their king. He rebuilt Emola, destroyed by Narsis, and occupied Remini, and almost every place up to Rome, but he died in the course of his victories. Clefis was cruel to such a degree, not only toward strangers but to his own lombards, that these people, sickened of royal power, did not create another king, but appointed among themselves thirty dukes to govern the rest. This prevented the lombards from occupying the whole of Italy, or of extending their dominion further than Benevento. Four of the cities of Rome, Ravenna, Cremona, Mantua, Pajua, Moncellice, Parma, Bologna, Finza, Foley, and Cessna, some defended themselves for a time, and others never fell under their dominion. Since not having a king, they became less prompt for war, and when they afterward appointed one, they were by living in freedom become less obedient, and more apt to quarrel among themselves, which from the first prevented a fortunate issue of their military expeditions, and this was the ultimate cause of their being driven out of Italy. The affairs of the lombards, being in the state just described, the Romans and Longinus came to an agreement with them, that each should lay down their arms and enjoy what they already possessed. End of Part 1, Chapter 2 Book 1, Chapter 3 of History of Florence. Recording by Christine. History of Florence and of the affairs of Italy. Volume 1 by Nicolo Machiavelli. Translator unknown. Book 1, Chapter 3. Beginning of the greatness of the pontiffs in Italy. Abuse of censors and indulgences. The Pope applies to Pepin, King of France, for assistance. Donation of Pepin to the Pontiff. Charlemagne. End of the Kingdom of the Lombards. The title of cardinal begins to be used. The Empire passes to the Germans. Baron Garius Duke of Fruilli, created King of Italy. Pisa becomes great. Order and division of the States of Italy. Electors of the Emperor created. In these times the popes began to acquire greater temporal authority than they had previously possessed. Although the immediate successors of St. Peter were more reverenced for the holiness of their lives and the miracles which they performed, and their examples so greatly extended the Christian religion, that princes of other states embraced it, in order to obviate the confusion which prevailed at that period. The Emperor having become a Christian and returned to Constantinople, it followed, as was remarked at the commencement of the book, that the Roman Empire was the more easily ruined, and the Church more rapidly increased her authority. Nevertheless, the whole of Italy being subject either to the emperors or the kings, till the coming of the Lombards, the Pope never acquired any greater authority than what reverence for their habits and doctrine gave them. In other respects they obeyed the emperors or kings, officiated for them in their affairs, as ministers or agents, and were even sometimes put to death by them. He who caused them to become of more importance in the affairs of Italy was Teodoric, King of the Goth, when he established the seat of his empire at Ravenna. For, Rome being without a prince, the Romans found it necessary for their safety to yield obedience to the Pope. His authority, however, was not greatly increased thereby. The only advantage being that the Church of Rome was allowed to take precedence of that of Ravenna. With the Lombards having taken possession and Italy being divided into many parts, the Pope had an opportunity of greater exertion. Being as it were the head of Rome, both the Emperor of Constantinople and the Lombards respected him, so that the Romans by his means entered into league with the Lombards and with Longinus, not as subjects but as equals. Thus the Popes at one time friends of the Greeks and at another of the Lombards increased their own power, but upon the ruin of the Eastern Empire, which occurred during the time of Heraclius, their influence was reduced. For the Sclavii, of whom we spoke before, again assailed Illyria and having occupied the country named its Clavonia after themselves. And the other parts were attacked by the Persians, then by the Saracens under Mohammed and lastly by the Turks, who took Syria, Africa and Egypt. These causes induced the Pope in his distress to seek new friends and he applied to the king of France. Nearly all the wars with the Northern barbarians carried on in Italy, it may be here remarked, were occasioned by the Pontiffs and the hordes with which the country was inundated were generally called in by them. The same mode of proceedings still continued and kept Italy weak and unsettled and therefore in relating the events which have taken place from those times to the present, the ruin of the empire will be no longer illustrated, but only the increase of the pontificate and of the other principalities which ruled Italy till the coming of Charles VIII. It will be seen how the Popes, first with centuries and afterward with seas and arms mingled with indulgences, became both terrible and vulnerable, and how, from having abused both, they ceased to possess any influence and were wholly dependent on the will of others for assistance in their wars. But to return to the order of our narration, Gregory III occupied the Papacy and the kingdom of the Lombards was held by Astropus who, contrary to agreement, seized Ravenna and made war upon the Pope. On this account, Gregory no longer relying upon the emperor of Constantinople, since he, for the reasons above given, was unable to assist him, and unwilling to trust the Lombards, for they had frequently broken their face, had recourse to Pepin II who, from being lord of Austria and Brabant, had become king of France, not so much by his own valor as by that of Charles Martel, his father, and Pepin, his grandfather. For Charles Martel, being governor of the kingdom, affected the memorable defeat of the Saracens near Tours upon the lawyer, in which two hundred thousand of them are said to have been left dead upon the feud of battle. Hence Pepin, by his father's reputation and his own abilities, became afterward king of France. To him Pope Gregory, as we have said, applied for assistance against the Lombards, which Pepin promised to grant, but desired first to see him and be honoured with his presence. Gregory accordingly went to France, passing an injured through the country of his enemies, so great was the respect they had for religion, and was treated honourably by Pepin, who sent an army into Italy, and besieged the Lombards in Pavia. King Astolfos, compelled by necessity, made proposals of peace to the French, who agreed to them at the entreaty of the Pope, for he did not desire the death of his enemy, but that he should be converted and live. In this treaty Astolfos promised to give to the church all the places he had taken from her, but the king's forces, having returned to France, he did not fulfil the agreement, and the Pope again had recourse to Pepin, who sent another army, conquered the Lombards, to Gravenna, and contrary to the wishes of the Greek Emperor, gave it to the Pope, with all the places that belonged to the Exarchate, and added to them Urbino and the Marca. But Astolfos, while fulfilling the terms of his agreement, died, and Desiderius, a Lombard, who was Duke of Tuscany, took up arms to occupy the kingdom, and demanded assistance of the Pope, promising him his friendship. The Pope, exceeding to his request, the other princes ascended. Desiderius kept faith at first, and proceeded to resign the district to the Pope, according to the agreement made with Pepin, so that an Exarch was no longer sent from Constantinople to Gravenna, but it was governed according to the will of the Pope. Pepin soon after died, and was succeeded by his son Charles, the same who, on account of the magnitude and success of his enterprises, was called Charlemagne, or Charles the Great. Teodor I now succeeded to the Papacy, and discord arising between him and Desiderius, the latter besieged him in Rome. The Pope requested assistance of Charles, who, having crossed the Alps, besieged Desiderius in Powai, where he took both him and his children, and sent them prisoners to France. He then went to visit the pontiff at Rome, where he declared that the Pope, being vicar of God, could not be judged by men. The Pope and the people of Rome made him emperor, and thus Rome began to have an emperor of the West. And whereas the Pope's used to be established by the emperors, the latter now began to have need of the Pope's at their elections, the empire continued to lose its powers, while the Church acquired them. And by these means she constantly extended her authority over temporal princes. The Lombards, having now been 232 years in the country, were strangers only in name, and Charles, wishing to reorganize the states of Italy, consented that they should occupy the places in which they had been brought up, and call the province after their own name, Lombardy. That they might be led to respect the Roman name, he ordered all that part of Italy adjoining to them, which had been under the exertion of Ravenna, to be called Romagna. Besides this he created his son Pepin, king of Italy, whose dominion extended to Benevento, all the rest being possessed by the Greek emperor, with whom Charles was in league. About this time Pascal I occupied the pontificate, and the priests of the churches of Rome, from being near to the Pope and attending the elections of the pontiff, began to dignify their own power with the title, by calling themselves Cardinals, and arrogated so great authority that having excluded the people of Rome from the election of Pontiff, the appointment of a new Pope was scarcely ever made, except from one of their own number. Thus on the death of Pascal, the Cardinal of Saint Sabina was created Pope by the title of Eugenius II, Italy having come into the hands of the French. A change of form on order took place, the Pope's acquiring greater temporal power, and the new authorities adopting the titles of Count and Marquis, as that of Duke had been introduced by Longinus, exarch of Ravenna. After the death of Thampontiffs, Osporco, a Roman, succeeded to the papacy, but on account of his unseemly appellation, he took the name of Sergius, and this was the origin of that change of names, which the Popes adapt upon their election to the pontificate. In the meantime, the emperor Charles died, and was succeeded by a lavish sepias, after whose death so many disputes arose among his sons, that at the time of his grandchildren the house of France lost the empire, which then came to the Germans, the first German emperor being called Arnolfos, nor did the Carlovingian family lose the empire only. Their discords also occasioned them the loss of Italy, for the Lombards, gathering strength, offended the Pope and the Romans, and Arnolfo, not knowing where to seek relief, was compelled to create Beringarius, Duke of Ruioli, king of Italy. These events induced the Huns, who occupied Pannonia, to assail Italy, but in an engagement with Beringarius they were compelled to return to Pannonia, which had from them been named Hungary. Romano was at this time emperor of Greece, having, while perfect of the army, the throne Constantine, and as Puglia and Calabria, which, as before observed, were parts of the Greek empire, had revolted, he gave permission to the Saracens to occupy them, and they, having taken possession of these provinces, besieged Rome. The Romans, Beringarius being then engaged in defending himself against the Huns, appointed Albaric, Duke of Tuscany, their leader. By his weller Rome was saved from the Saracens, who, with drawing from the siege, erected a fortress upon Mount Gargano, by means of which they governed Puglia and Calabria, and harassed the whole country. Thus Italy was in those times very grievously afflicted, being in constant warfare with the Huns in the direction of the Alps, and, on the Neapolitan side, suffering from the inroads of the Saracens. The state of things continued many years, occupying the reins of three Beringari, who succeeded each other, and during this time the pope and the church were greatly disturbed, the impotence of the Eastern, and the disunion which prevailed among the western princes, leaving them without defense. The city of Genua, with all her territory upon the rivers, having been overrun by the Saracens, an impulse was thus given to the rising greatness of Pisa, in which city multitudes took refuge, who had been driven out of their own country. These events occurred in the year 931, when Otto, Duke of Saxony, the son of Henry and Matilda, a man of great prudence and reputation, being made emperor, the pope Agapito, begged that he would come into Italy and relieve him from the tyranny of the Beringari. The states of Italy were governed in this manner. Lombardy was under Beringarius III and Alfred his son. Tuscany and Romania were governed by a deputy of the western emperor. Puglia and Calabria were partly under the Greek emperor and partly under the Saracens. In Rome two consuls were annually chosen from the nobility, who governed her according to ancient custom. To these was added a prefect, who dispensed justice among the people and there was a council of twelve, who each year appointed directors for the places subject to them. The popes had more or less authority in Rome and the rest of Italy, in proportion as they were favorites of the emperor or of the most powerful states. The emperor Otto came into Italy, took the kingdom from the Beringari, in which they had reigned 55 years and reinstated the pontiff in his dignity. He had a son and a nephew, each named Otto, who one after the other succeeded to the empire. In the reign of Otto III Pope Gregory V was expelled by the Romans, whereupon the emperor came into Italy and replaced him and the Pope, to revenge himself on the Romans, took from them the right to create an emperor and gave it to three princes and three bishops of Germany, the princes of Brandenburg, Palatine and Saxony, and the bishops of Magonza, Treveri and Colonia. This occurred in the year 1002. After the death of Otto III, the electors created Henry, Duke of Bavaria, emperor, who at the end of twelve years was crowned by Pope Stefan VIII. Henry and his wife Simeonda were persons of very holy life, as is seen by the many temples built and endowed by them, of which the Church of St. Miniat or near Florence is one. Henry died in 1024 and was succeeded by Conrad of Suobia, and the latter by Henry II, who came to Rome. And as there was a schism in the Church of three popes, he set them all aside and caused the election of Clement II, by whom he was crowned emperor. End of Book 1, Chapter 3. Book 1, Chapter 4 of History of Florence. This is the LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Christine. History of Florence and of the affairs of Italy. Volume 1 by Niccolò Machiavelli, translator and known. Book 1, Chapter 4. Niccolas II commits the election of the Pope to the Cardinals. First example of a prince deprived of his dominions by the Pope. Guelphs and Gibbellines. Establishment of the Kingdom of Naples. Pope Orban II goes to France. The first crusade. New orders of knighthood. Saladin takes from the Christians their possessions in the east. Death of the Countess Matilda. Character of Frederick Barbarossa. Schism. Frederick creates an antipope. Building of Alexandria and Puglia. Disgraceful conditions imposed by the Pope upon Henry, king of England. Reconciliation of Frederick with the Pope. The Kingdom of Naples passes to the Germans. Orders of Saint Dominic and Saint Francis. Italy was at this time governed partly by the people. Some districts by their own princes and others by the deputies of the Emperor. The highest in authority and to whom the others referred was called the Chancellor. Of the princes the most powerful were Godford and the Countess Matilda, his wife, who was daughter of Beatrice, the sister of Henry II. She and her husband possessed Luka, Parma, Reggio, Mantua and the whole of what is now called the patrimony of the Church. The ambition of the Roman people caused many wars between them and the Pontiffs whose authority had previously been used to free them from the emperors. But when they had taken the government of the city to themselves and regulated it according to their own pleasure, they at once became an enmity with the Popes who received far more injuries from them than from any Christian potentate. And while the Popes caused all the West to tremble with their censures, the people from Rome were in open rebellion against them, nor had they or the Popes any other purpose but to deprive each other of reputation and authority. Nicholas II now attained the papacy and as Gregory V had taken from the Romans the right to create an emperor, he in the same manner determined to deprive them of their share in the election of the Pope and confine the creation to the Cardinals alone, nor did they satisfy him for having agreed with the princes who governed Calabria and Puglia, with methods which we shall presently relate, he compelled the officers, whom the Romans appointed to their different jurisdictions, to render obedience to him, and some of them he even deprived of their offices. After the death of Nicholas there was a schism in the church. The clergy of Lombardy refused obedience to Alexander II, created at Rome, and elected Cadolo of Parma anti-Pope, and Henry, who hated the power of the Pontives, gave Alexander to understand that he must renounce the Pontificate and ordered the Cardinals to go into Germany to appoint a new Pope. He was the first who felt the importance of spiritual weapons for the Pope called a council throne and deprived Henry of both the empire and the kingdom. Some of the people of Italy took the part of the Pope, others of Henry, and hence arose the factions of the gulfs and the gibelins. That Italy, relieved from the inundations of barbarians, might be distracted with intersting strife. Henry, being excommunicated, was compelled by his people to come into Italy, and fall barfooted upon his knees before the Pope and asked his pardon. This occurred in the year 1084. Nevertheless, there shortly afterward arose new discords between the Pope and Henry, upon which the Pope again excommunicated him, and the emperor sent his son, also named Henry, with an army to Rome, and he was the assistant of the Romans, who hated the Pope, besieged him in the fortress. Robert Giscard then came from Puglia to his relief, but Henry had left before his arrival, and returned to Germany. The Romans stood out alone, and the city was sacked by Robert, and reduced to ruins. As from this, Robert sprung the establishment of the kingdom of Naples. It seems not superfluous to relate, particularly his actions and origin. This union, having arisen among the descendants of Charlemagne, occasioned was given to another northern people, called Normans, to assail France, and occupy that portion of the country, which is now named Normandy. A part of these people came into Italy, at the time when the province was infested with the Beringari, the Cerescens, and the Huns, and occupied some places in Romania, where, during the wars of that period, they conducted themselves valiantly. Tancred, one of these Norman princes, had many children. Among the rest were William, surname Ferebac, and Robert, called Giscard. When the principality was governed by William, the troubles of Italy were in some measure abated, but the Cerescens still held Sicily, and plundered the coast of Italy daily. On this account, William arranged with the princes of Capua and Salerno, and with Milorko, a Greek, who governed Puglia and Calabria for the Greek emperor, to attack Sicily, and it was agreed that, if they were victorious, each should have a fourth part of the booty and the territory. They were fortunate in their enterprise, expelled the Cerescens, and took possession of the island. But, after the victory, Milorko secretly caused forces to be brought from Greece, seized Sicily in the name of the emperor, and appropriated the booty to himself and his followers. William was much dissatisfied with this, but reserved the exhibition of his displeasure for a suitable opportunity, and left Sicily with the princes of Salerno and Capua. But when they had parted from him to return to their homes, instead of proceeding to Romania, he led his people towards Puglia, and took Melfi, and from thence, in a short time, recovered from the Greek emperor, almost the whole of Puglia and Calabria, over rich provinces, in the time of Pope Nicholas II, his brother Robert Giscard was sovereign. Robert, having had many disputes with his nephews for the inheritance of these states, requested the influence of the Pope to settle them, which his holiness was very willing to afford, being anxious to make a friend of Robert, to defend himself against the emperor of Germany, and the insolence of the Roman people, which indeed shortly followed, when, at the instance of Gregory, he drove Henry from Rome and subdued the people. Robert was succeeded by his sons Roger and William, to whose dominion not only was Naples added, but all the places interjacent as far as Rome, and afterwards Sicily, of which Roger became sovereign. But upon William going to Constantinople to marry the daughter of the emperor, his dominions were arrested from him by his brother Roger. Inflated with so great an accusation, Roger first took the title of king of Italy, but afterward contended himself with that of king of Puglia and Sicily. He was the first who established and gave the name to this kingdom, which still retains its ancient boundaries, although its sovereigns have been of many families and countries. Upon the failure of the Normans, it came to the Germans, after these to the French, then to the Aragonese, and is now held by the Flemish. About this time Rubens II became Pope and excited the hatred of the Romans. As he did not think himself safe even in Italy on account of the disunion which prevailed, he directed his thoughts to a generous enterprise. With his whole clergy he went into France and at Anvers, having drawn together a vast multitude of people, delivered an oration against the infidels, which so excited the minds of his audience that they determined to undertake the conquest of Asia from the Cerescenes, which enterprise with all those of a similar nature, their afterward called crusades, because the people who joined in them bore upon their armor and apparel the figure of a cross. The leaders were Godfrey, Ostas, and Baldwin of Boulogne, Counts of Boulogne, and Peter, a hermit celebrated for his prudence and sagacity. Many kings and people joined them and contributed money, and many private persons fought under them at their own expense, so great was the influence of religion in those days upon the minds of men, excited by the example of those who were its principal ministers. The proudest successes attended the beginning of this enterprise, for the whole of Asia Minor, Syria, and part of Egypt fell under the power of the Christians. To commemorate these events, the order of the Knights of Jerusalem was created, which still continues and holds the island of Rhodes, the only obstacle to the power of the Mohammedans. The same events gave rise to the order of the Knights Templars, which, after a short time, on account of their shameless practices, was dissolved. Various fortunes attended the crusaders in the course of their enterprises, and many nations and individuals became celebrated accordingly. The kings of France and England joined them, and, with the Venetians, peasants and Genoese, acquired great reputation till the time of Saladin, when, by whose talents and the disagreement of the Christians amongst themselves, the crusaders were robbed of all that glory which they had at first acquired, and after ninety years were driven from those places, which they had so honorably and happily recovered. After the death of Orban, Pascal II became pope, and the empire was under the dominion of Henry IV, who came to Rome pretending friendship for the Pontiff, but afterward put his holiness and all his clergy in prison, nor did he release them till it was conceded that he should dispose of the churches of Germany according to his own pleasure. About this time the Countess Matilda died, and made the church heir to all her territories. After the death of Pascal and Henry IV, many popes and emperors followed, till the papacy was occupied by Alexander III and the empire by Frederick, surnamed Barbarossa. The popes during this period had met with many difficulties from the people of Rome and the emperors, and in the time of Barbarossa they were much increased. Frederick possessed military talent, but was so full of pride that he would not submit to the Pontiff. However, at his election to the empire he came to Rome to be crowned and returned peaceably to Germany, where he did not long remain in the same mind, but came again into Italy to subdue certain places in Lombardy which did not obey him. It happened at this time that the Cardinals Saint Clement of a Roman family separated from Alexander and was made pope by some of the Cardinals. The emperor Frederick being encamped at Cerma, Alexander complained to him of the anti-pope and received for answer that they were both to go to him and having heard each side he would determine which was the true pope. This reply displeased Alexander and as he saw the emperor was inclined to favor the anti-pope he excommunicated him and then fled to Philip, king of France. Frederick in the meantime carrying on the war in Lombardy destroyed Milan which caused the union of Verona, Padua and Vicenza against him for their common defense. About the same period the anti-pope died and Frederick set up Guido of Cremona in his stead. The Romans from the absence of the pope and from the emperor being in Lombardy had reacquired some authority in Rome and proceeded to recover the obedience of those places which had been subject to them and as the people of Tuscalum refused to submit to their authority they proceeded against them with their whole force but these being assisted by Frederick rooted the Roman army with such dreadful slaughter that Rome was never after either so populous or so rich. Alexander now returned to the city thinking he could be saved there on account of the enmity subsisting between the Romans and the emperor and from the enemies which the latter had in Lombardy but Frederick setting aside every other consideration led his forces and then came before Rome and Alexander fled to William king of Puglia who had become heir of that kingdom after the death of Roger. Frederick however withdrew from Rome on account of the plague which then prevailed and returned to Germany the cities of Lombardy in league against him in order command Pavia and Tortona which adhered to the imperial party built a city to be their magazine in time of war and named it Alexandria in honor of the pope and in contempt of Frederick. Gido the anti-pope died and Giovanni of Perma was appointed in his stead who being favored by the imperialists lived at Montefiascone. Pope Alexander being at Tuscalum with or he had been called by the inhabitants that with his authority he might defend them from the Romans ambassadors came to him from Henry king of England to signify that he was not blameable for the death of Thomas Abeket Archbishop of Canterbury although public report had slandered him with it on this the pope sent two cardinals to England to inquire into the truth of the matter and although they found no actual charge against the king still on account of the infamy of the crime and for not having honored the archbishop so much as he deserved the sentence against the king of England was that having called together the parents of his empire he should upon oath before them affirm his innocence that he should immediately send two hundred soldiers to Jerusalem paid for one year that before the end of three years he should himself proceed with as large an army as he could draw together that his subject should have the power of appealing to Rome when they thought proper and that he should annul whatever acts had been passed in his kingdom unfavorable to a classistical rule these terms are all accepted by Henry and thus a great king submitted to a sentence that in our day a private person would have been ashamed of but while the pope exercised so great authority or distant princess he could not compel obedience from the Romans themselves or obtain their consent that he should remain in Rome even though he promised to intermedal only with a classistical affairs about this time Frederick returned to Italy and while he was preparing to carry on new wars against the pope his prayerlets and barons declared that they would abandon him unless he reconciled himself with the church so that he was obliged to go and submit to the pope of Venus where a pacification was affected but in which the pope deprived the emperor of all authority over Rome and named William king of Sicily and Publia a co-ajutor with him Frederick unable to exist without war joined the crusaders in Asia that he might exercise that ambition against Muhammad which he could not gratify against the vicar of Christ and being near the river Kidnos tempted by the clearness of its waters based therein took cold and died thus the river did a greater favor to the mohammedans than the pope's excommunications had done to the Christians for the latter only checked his pride while the former finished his career Frederick being dead the pope had now only to suppress the controversy of the Romans and after many disputes concerning the creation of councils it was agreed that they should elect them as they had been accustomed to but that these should not undertake the office till they had first sworn to be faithful to the church this agreement being made Giovanni the Antipope took refuge in Mount Albano where he shortly afterward died William King of Naples died about the same time and the pope intended to occupy that kingdom on the ground that the king had left only a natural son named Tancred but the barons would not consent and wished that Tancred should be king Celestine III the then pope anxious to snatch the kingdom from the hands of Tancred contrived that Henry son of Frederick should be elected emperor and promised him the kingdom on the condition that he should restore to the church all the places that had belonged to her to facilitate this affair he called Gostanza a daughter of William who had been placed in a monastery and was now old to be brought from her seclusion and become the wife of Henry thus the kingdom of Naples passed from the Normans who had been the founders of it to the Germans as soon as the affairs of Germany were arranged the emperor Henry came into Italy with Gostanza his wife and a son about four years of age named Frederick and as Tancred was now dead leaving only an infant named Roger he took possession of the kingdom without much difficulty after some years Henry died in Sicily and was succeeded in the kingdom by Frederick and in the empire by author Duke of Saxony who was elected through the influence of innocence assert but as soon as he had taken the crown contrary to the general expectation he became an enemy of the pope occupied Romania and prepared to attack the kingdom on this account the pope excommunicated him he was abandoned by everyone and the electors appointed Frederick king of Naples emperor in his stead Frederick came to Rome for his coronation with the pope being afraid of his power would not crown him and endeavored to withdraw him from Italy as he had done also Frederick returned to Germany in anger and after many battles his author at length conquered him meanwhile innocent died who besides other excellent works built the hospital of the Holy Ghost at Rome he was succeeded by Honorius III in whose times the religious orders of Saint Dominic and Saint Francis were founded 1218 Honorius crowned Frederick to whom Giovanni descended from Baldwin king of Jerusalem who commanded the remainder of the Christian army in Asia and still held that title gave a daughter in marriage and with her portion conceded to him the title to that kingdom hence it is that every king of Naples is called king of Jerusalem End of Book 1, Chapter 4 Book 1, Chapter 5 Nephews of the Popes At this time the states of Italy were governed in the following manner the Romans no longer elected consuls but instead of them and with the same powers they appointed one senator and sometimes more the League which the cities of Lombardy had formed against Frederick Barbarossa still continued and comprehended Milan, Brescia, Montuia and the greater number of the cities of Romania together with Verona, Vicenza, Padua and Trevisa those which took part with the emperor were Cremona, Bergamo, Parma, Reggio and Trento the other cities and fortresses of Lombardy Romania and the March of Trevisa favored according to their necessities sometimes one party sometimes the other In the time of Arthur III there had come into Italy a man called Ezelin who remaining in the country had a son and he too had a son named Ezelin this person being rich and powerful took part with Frederick who as we have said was at enmity with the pope Frederick at the instigation and with the assistance of Ezelin took Verona and Montuia destroyed Vicenza occupied Padua rooted the army of the United Cities and then directed his course towards Tuscany Ezelin in the meantime had subdued the whole of the Trevisa and March but could not prevail against Ferrara which was defended by Azone de Este and the forces which the pope had in Lombardy and as the enemy were compelled to withdraw the pope gave Ferrara in fee to this Azone from whom are descended those who now govern that city Frederick halted at Pisa deserts of making himself Lord of Tuscany but while endeavoring to discover what friends and foes he had in that province he scattered so many seeds of discord as occasioned the ruin of Italy for the factions of the giraffes and gibelins multiplied those who supported the church taking the name of giraffes while the followers of the emperor were called gibelins these names being first heard at Pistoia Frederick marching from Pisa assailed and wasted the territories of the church in a variety of ways so that the pope having no other remedy unfurled against him the banner of the cross as his predecessor had done against the Sarsines Frederick that he might be suddenly abandoned by his people as Frederick Barbarossa and others had been took into his pay a number of Sarsines and to bind them to him and established in Italy a firm bulwark against the church without fear of papal maledictions he gave them Nocarra in the kingdom of Naples that having a refuge of their own they might be placed in greater security the pontificate was now occupied by innocent the fourth who being in fear of Frederick went to Genoa and then to France where he appointed a council to be held at Leon's where it was the intention of Frederick to attend but he was prevented by the rebellion of Parma and being repulsed he went into Tuscany and from thence to Sicily where he died leaving his son Conrad in Swabia and in Puglia Manfred whom he had created Duke of Benevento born of a concubine Conrad came to take possession of the kingdom and having arrived at Naples died leaving an infant son named Coradino who was then in Germany on this account Manfred occupied the state first as guardian of Coradino but afterward causing a report to be circulated that Coradino had died made himself king contrary to the wishes of both the Pope and the Neopolitans who however were obliged to submit while these things were occurring in the kingdom of Naples many movements took place in Lombardy between the Gavs and the Giebelins the Gavs were headed by a legate of the Pope and the Giebelin party by Ezzelin who possessed nearly the whole of Lombardy beyond the pole and as in the course of the war Padua rebelled he put to death twelve thousand of its citizens but before its close he himself was slain in the eighties year of his age and all the places he had held became free Manfred king of Naples continued those enmities against the church which had been begun by his ancestors and kept the Pope urban the fourth in continual alarm so that in order to subdue him urban summoned the crusaders and went to Perugia to await their arrival seeing them few and slow in their approach he found that more able assistance was necessary to conquer Manfred he therefore sought the favor of France created Louis of Anjou the king's brother sovereign of Naples and Sicily and excited him to come into Italy to take possession of that kingdom but before Charles came to Rome the Pope died and was succeeded by Clement IV in whose time he arrived at Ostia with thirty galleys and ordered that the rest of his forces should come by land during his abode at Rome the citizens in order to attach him to them made him their senator and the Pope invested him with the kingdom on condition that he should pay annually to the church the sum of fifty thousand dukeats and it was decreed that from henceforth neither Charles nor any other person who might be king of Naples should be emperor also Charles marched against Manfred rooted army and slew him near Benevento and then became sovereign of Sicily and Naples Coradino to whom by his father's will the state belonged having collected a great force in Germany marched into Italy against Charles with whom he came to an engagement at Taglia Cosa was taken prisoner while endeavoring to escape and being unknown put to death Italy remained in repose until the pontificate of Adrian V Charles being at Rome and governing the city by virtue of his office of senator the Pope unable to endure his power withdrew to Viterbo and solicited the emperor Rodolf to come into Italy and assist him Thus the Pope sometimes in zeal for religion at others moved by their own ambition were continually calling in new parties and exciting new disturbances As soon as they had made a prince powerful they viewed him with jealously and sought his ruin and never allowed another to rule the country which from their own imbecility they were themselves unable to govern Princes were in fear of them for fighting or running away the Pope's always obtained the advantage unless it happened they were entrapped by deceit as occurred to Boniface VIII and some others who under pretense of friendship were ensnared by the emperors Rodolf did not come into Italy being detained by the war in which he was engaged with the king of Bohemia at this time Adrian died and Nicholas III of the Orsini family became pontiff he was a bold ambitious man and being resolved at any event to diminish the power of Charles induced emperor Rodolf to complain that he had a governor in Tuscany favorable to the gulfic faction who after the death of Manfred had been replaced by him Charles yielded to the emperor and withdrew his governor and the Pope sent one of his nephews a cardinal as governor for the emperor who for the honor done him restored Romagna to the church which had been taken from her by his predecessors and the Pope made Bertoldo Orsini duke of Romagna as Nicholas now thought himself powerful enough to oppose Charles he deprived him of the office of senator and made a decree that no one of royal race should ever be a senator in Rome it was his intention to deprive Charles of Sicily and to this end he entered into a secret negotiation with Peter king of Aragon which took effect in the following papacy he also had the design of creating two kings out of his family the one is Lombardy the other in Tuscany whose power would defend the church from the Germans who might design to come into Italy and from the French who were in the kingdom of Naples and Sicily but with these thoughts he died he was the first pope who openly exhibited his own ambition and under pretence of making the church great conferred honors and emoliment upon his own family previous to this time no mention is made of the nephews or families of any pontiff but future history is full of them nor is there now anything left for them to attempt except the effort to make the papacy hereditary true it is the princes of their creating have not long sustained their honors for the pontiffs being generally of very limited existence did not get their plans properly established to Nicolaus succeeded Martin the 4th of French origin and consequently favorable to the party of Charles who sent him assistance against the rebellion of Romania and while they were encamped at Furli Guido Bonacto an astrologer contrived that at an appointed moment the people should assail the forces of the king and the plan succeeding all the French were taken and slain about this period was also carried into effect the plot of Pope Nicholas and Peter king of Aragon by which the Sicilians murdered all the French that were in that island and Peter made himself sovereign of the it saying that it belonged to him in the right of his wife Costanza daughter of Manfred but Charles while making warlike preparations for the recovery of Sicily died leaving a son Charles II who was made prisoner in Sicily and to recover his liberty promised to return to his prison if within three years he did not obtain the Pope's consent that the kings of Aragon should be invested with the kingdom of Sicily the emperor Rodolf instead of coming into Italy gave the empire the advantage of having done so by sending an ambassador with authority to make all those cities free which would redeem themselves with money many purchased their freedom and with liberty changed their mode of living Adolfo of Saxony succeeded to the empire and to the papacy Pietro del Morone who took the name of Celestino but being a hermit and full of sanctity after six months renounced the pontificate and Boniface the ace was elected after a time the French and Germans left Italy and the country remained holy in the hands of the Italians but Providence ordained that the Pope when these enemies were withdrawn should neither establish nor enjoy his authority and raise two very powerful families in Rome the Colonesi and the Orsini who with their arms and the proximity of their abode kept the pontificate weak Boniface then determined to destroy the Colonesi and besides excommunicating endeavored to direct the weapons of the church against them this although it did them some injury proved more disastrous to the Pope for those arms which from attachment to the face performed valiantly against its enemies as soon as they were directed against Christians for private ambition ceased to do the will of those who wished to wield them and thus the two eager desire to gratify themselves cause the pontiffs by degrees to lose their military power besides what is just related the Pope deprived two Cardinals of the Colonesi family of their office and Schiara the head of the house escaping unknown was taken by Corsairs of Catalonia and put to the oar but being afterward recognized at Marcellus he was sent to Philip king of France who had been excommunicated and deprived of the kingdom Philip considering that in a war against the pontiff he would either be a loser or run great hazards had recourse to deception and simulating a wish to come to terms secretly sent Schiara into Italy who having arrived at Anagnia where his Holiness then resided assembled a few friends and in the night took him prisoner and although the people of Anagnia set that liberty shortly after yet from grief at the injury he died mad Boniface was the founder of the jubilee in 1300 and fixed that it should be celebrated at each revolution of 100 years in those times various troubles arose between the gulf and gible infections and the emperors having abandoned Italy many places became free and many were occupied by torrents Pope Benedict restored the scarlet head to the Cardinals of the Colonesi family under blessed Philip King of France he was succeeded by Clement V who being a Frenchman removed the papal court to Avignon in 1305 End of Chapter 5 Book 1 Chapter 6 of History of Florence This is the LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org Recording by Christine History of Florence and of the affairs of Italy Volume 1 by Niccolò Machiavelli Translator Unknown Book 1 Chapter 6 The Emperor Henry comes into Italy The Florentines takes a part of the Pope The Visconti originates the Duchy of Milan Artifice of Mafio Visconti against the family of Della Torre Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti First Duke of Milan The Emperor Louis in Italy John, King of Bohemia in Italy League against the King of Bohemia and the Pope's Legate Origin of Venice Liberty of the Venetians Confirmed by Pepin and the Greek Emperor Greatness of Venice Decline of Venice Discord between the Pope and the Emperor Giovanna, Queen of Naples Rienzi The Jubilee reduced to 50 years Succession of the Duke of Milan Cardinal Egidio the Pope's Legate War between the Genoese and the Venetians At this time Charles II of Naples died and was succeeded by his son Robert Henry of Luxembourg had been elected to the Empire and came to Rome for his coronation although the Pope was not there His coming occasioned great excitement in Lombardy for he sent all the banished to their homes whether they were gulfs or gibelins And in consequence of this one faction endeavouring to drive out the other the whole province was filled with war nor could the Emperor with all his endeavors abate its fury Leaving Lombardy by way of Genoa he came to Pisa where he endeavoured to take Tuscany from King Robert But not being successful he went to Rome where he remained only a few days being driven away by the Orsini with the consent of King Robert and returned to Pisa and that he might more securely make war upon Tuscany and rest the country from the hands of the King he caused it to be assailed by Frederick monarch of Sicily But when he was in hope of occupying Tuscany and robbing the King of Naples of his dominions he died and was succeeded by Louis of Bavaria About the same period John the 22nd attained the papacy during whose time the Emperor still continued to persecute the gulfs and the church but they were defended by Robert and the Florentines Many wars took place in Lombardy between the Visconti and the gulfs and in Tuscany between Castruccio of Lucca and the Florentines As the family of Visconti gave rise to the Duchy of Milan one of the five principalities which afterward governed Italy I shall speak of them from a rather earlier date Milan upon recovering from the ruin into which she had been thrown by Frederick Barbarossa in revenge for her injuries joined the league formed by the Lombard cities for their common defense this restrained him and for a while preserved alive the interests of the church in Lombardy In the course of the wars which followed the family of Lattore became very potent in that city and their reputation increased so long as the Emperor possessed little authority in the province But Frederick II coming into Italy and the Ghibelin party by the influence of Ezelin having grown powerful seeds of the same factions sprung up in all the cities In Milan were the Visconti who expelled the Lattores these however did not remain out for by agreement between the Emperor and the Pope they were restored to their country for when the Pope and his court removed the France and the Emperor Henry of Luxembourg came into Italy with the pretext of going to Rome for his crown he was received in Milan by Maffaeo Visconti and Guido de Lattore who were then the heads of these families but Maffaeo designing to make use of the Emperor for the purpose of expelling Guido and thinking the enterprise not difficult on account of the Lattore being of the contrary faction to the imperial took occasion from the remarks which the people made of the uncivil behavior of the Germans to go craftily about and excite the populace to arms themselves and throw off the yoke of these barbarians when a suitable moment arrived he caused a person in whom he confided to create a tumult upon which the people took arms against the Germans but no sooner was the mischief well on foot that Maffaeo with his sons and their partisans ran to Henry telling him that all the disturbance had been occasioned by the Lattore family who not content to remain peacefully in Milan had taken the opportunity to plunder him that they might ingratiate themselves with the gulfs in Italy and become princes in the city they then made him be of good cheer for they with their party whenever he wished it were ready to defend him with their lives Henry believing all that Maffaeo told him joined his forces to those of the Visconti and attacking the Lattore who were in various parts of the city endeavoring to quell the tumult slow all upon whom they could lay hands and having plundered the others of their property send them into exile by this artifice Maffaeo Visconti became a prince of Milan of him remained Galeazzo and Azzo and after these Lucino and Giovanni Giovanni became Archbishop of Milan and of Lucino who died before him were left Bernabo and Galeazzo Galeazzo dying soon after left a son called the Count of Virtu who after the death of the Archbishop contrived the murder of his uncle Bernabo became Prince of Milan and was the first who had the title of Duke the Duke left Filippo and Giovanni Angelo the latter of whom being slain by the people of Milan the state fell to Filippo but he having no male heir Milan passed from the family of Visconti to that of Sforza in the manner to be related here after but to return to the point from which we deviated the Emperor Louis to add to the importance of his party and to receive the crown came into Italy and being at Milan as an excuse for taking money of the Milanese he pretended to make them free and to put the Visconti in prison but shortly afterwards he released them and having gone to Rome in order to disturb Italy with less difficulty he made Piero della Corvara Antipope by whose influence and the power of the Visconti he designed to weaken the opposite faction in Tuscany and Lombardy but Castruccio died and his death caused the failure of the Emperor's purpose for Pisa and Lucca rebelled the Pisan sent Piero della Corvara a prisoner to the Pope in France and the Emperor despairing of the affairs of Italy returned to Germany he had scarcely left before John king of Bohemia came into the country at the request of the gibbalans of Brescia and made himself lord of that city and of Bergamo and as his entry was with the consent of the Pope although he feigned the contrary the legate of Bologna favored him thinking by this means to prevent the return of the Emperor this caused a change in the parties of Italy for the Florentines and King Robert finding the legate was favorable to the enterprises of the gibbalans became foes of all those to whom the legate and the king of Bohemia were friendly without having regard for either faction whether Gau for gibbalan many princes joined them of whom among others were the Visconti the De la Scala, Filippo Gonzalo of Mantuia, the Carrara and those of Este upon this the Pope excommunicated them all the king in fear of the league went to collect forces in his own country and having returned with the large army still found his undertaking a difficult one so seeing his error he withdrew to Bohemia to the great displeasure of the legate leaving only Reggio and Modena guarded and Parma in the care of Marsilio and Pierro de Rossi who were the most powerful men in the city the king of Bohemia being gone Bologna joined the league and the leaguers divided among themselves the four cities which remained as a church faction they agreed that Parma should pertain to the De la Scala Reggio to the Gonzaga Modena to the family of Este and Luca to the Florentines but in taking possession of these cities many disputes arose which were afterward in a great measure settled by the Venetians some perhaps will think it a species of impropriety that we have so long deferred speaking of the Venetians there as being a republic which both an account of its power and internal regulations deserves to be celebrated above any principality of Italy but thus the surprise may cease when the cause is known I shall speak of their city from a more remote period that everyone may understand what were their beginnings and the causes which so long withheld them from interfering in the affairs of Italy when Attila king of the Huns besieged Achillea the inhabitants after defending themselves a long time began to despair of affecting their safety and fled for refuge to several uninhabited rocks situated at the point of the Adriatic Sea now called the Gulf of Venice carrying with them whatever movable property they possessed the people of Padua finding themselves in equal danger and knowing that having became master of Aquileia Attila would next attack themselves also removed with their most valuable property to a place on the same sea called Rivo Alto to which they brought their women children and aged persons leaving the youth in Padua to assist in her defense besides these the people of Montselitz with the inhabitants of the surrounding hills driven by similar fears fled to the same rocks but after Attila had taken Aquileia and destroyed Padua Montselitz with Cenza and Verona the people of Padua and others who were powerful continued to inhabit the marshes about Rivo Alto and in like manner all the people of the province anciently called Venetia driven by the same events became collected in these marshes thus under the pressure of necessity they left an agreeable and fertile country to occupy one sterile and unfalsome however in consequence of a great number of people being drawn together into a comparatively small space in a short time they made those places not only habitable but delightful and having established among themselves laws and useful regulations enjoyed themselves in security amid the devastations of Italy and soon increased both in reputation and strength for besides the inhabitants already mentioned many fled to these places from the cities of Lombardy principally to escape from the cruelties of Clefis king of the Lombards which greatly tended to increase the numbers of the new city and in the conventions which were made between Pepin king of France and the emperor of Greece when the former at the entreaty of the pope came to drive the Lombards out of Italy the Duke of Benevento and the Venetians did not render obedience to either the one or the other but alone enjoyed their liberty as necessity had led them to dwell on sterile rocks they were compelled to seek the means of subsistence elsewhere and voyaging with their ships to every port of the ocean their city became a depository for the various products of the world and was itself filled with men of every nation for many years the Venetians sold no other dominion than that which tended to facilitate their commercial enterprises and thus acquired many ports in Greece and Syria and as the French had made frequent use of their ships in voyages to Asia the island of Candia was assigned to them in recompense for these services while they lived in this manner their name spread terror over the seas and was held in veneration throughout Italy this was so completely the case that they were generally chosen to arbitrate in controversies between the states as they cured in the difference between the colleagues on account of the cities they had divided among themselves which being referred to the Venetians they awarded Brestia and Bergamo to the Visconti but when in the course of time urged by their eagerness for dominion they had made themselves masters of Padua, Vicenza, Trevissa and afterward of Verona, Bergamo and Brestia with many cities in Romania and the kingdom of Naples other nations were impressed with such an opinion of their power that they were a terror not only to the princes of Italy but to the ultra-mountain kings these states entered into an alliance against them and in one day rested from them the provinces they had obtained with so much labor and expense and although they have in later times re-acquired some portions still possessing neither power nor reputation like all the other Italian powers they live at the mercy of others Benedict XII having attained the pontificate and finding Italy lost fearing too that the emperor would assume the sovereignty of the country determined to make friends of all who had observed the government of those cities which had been accustomed to obey the emperor that they might have occasion to dread the latter and unite with himself in the defense of Italy to this end he eschewed a decree confirming to all the tyrants of Lombardy the places they had seized after making this concession the pope died and was succeeded by Clement VI the emperor seeing with what a liberal hand the pontiff had bestowed the dominions of the empire in order to be equally bountiful with the property of others gave to all who had assumed sovereignty over the cities or territories of the church the imperial authority to retain possession of them by this means Galeotto Malattesti and his brothers became lords of Rimino, Pessaro and Fano Antonio da Montefelettro of the Marca and Urbino Giantil da Varano of Camerino Ghido di Polenta of Ravenna Sinebaldo or the Luffy of Furli and Cessina Giovanni Manfredi of Faenza Lodovico Alidossi of Imola and besides these many others in diverse places thus of all the cities, towns or fortresses of the church few remind without a prince for she did not recover herself till the time of Alexander VI who by the ruin of the descendants of these princes restored the authority to the church the emperor when he made the concession before named being a torrento signified an intention of going into Italy in consequence of this many battles were fought in Lombardy and the Visconti became lords of Parma robert king of Naples now died leaving only two grandchildren the issue his son Charles who had died a considerable time before him he ordered that the elder of the two whose name was Giovanna or John should be heroes of the kingdom and take for her husband Andrea son of the king of Hungary his grandson Andrea had not lived with her long before she caused him to be murdered and married another cousin Louis Prince of Torrento but Louis king of Hungary and brother of Andrea in order to avenge his death brought forces into Italy and drove Queen John and her husband out of the kingdom at this period a memorable circumstance took place in Rome Nicolo de Lorenzo often called Rienzi or Colo di Rienzi who held the office of chancellor at Camp Pidoglio drove the senators from Rome and under the title of tribune made himself the head of the Roman Republic restoring it to its ancient form and with so great reputation of justice and virtue that not all of them that not only the place is adjacent but the whole of Italy sent ambassadors to him the ancient provinces seeing Rome arise to new life again raised their heads and some induced by hope others by fear honored him as their sovereign but Nicolo notwithstanding his great reputation lost all energy in the very beginning of his enterprise and as if oppressed with the weight of so vast an undertaking without being driven away secretly fled to Charles king of Bohemia who was the influence of the Pope and in contempt of Louis of Bavaria had been elected emperor Charles to ingratiate himself with the Pontiff sent Nicolo to him a prisoner after some time in imitation of Rienzi Francesco Baron Cegli seized upon the tribune of Rome and expelled the senators and the Pope as the most effectual means of repressing him drew Nicolo from his prison sent him to Rome and restored to him the office of tribune so that he reoccupied the state and put Francesco to death but the colonnasy becoming his enemies he too after a short time shared the same fate and the senators were again restored to their office the king of Hungary having driven out queen John but the Pope who chose to have the queen in the neighborhood of Rome rather than the king affected her restoration to the sovereignty on the condition that her husband contending himself with the title of prince of torrento should not be called king being the year 1350 the Pope thought that the jubilee appointed by Boniface the 8th to take place at the conclusion of each century was renewed at the end of each 50 years and having issued a decree for the establishment of it the Romans in acknowledgement of the benefit consented that he should send four cardinals to reform the government of the city and appoint senators according to his own pleasure the Pope again declared Louis of torrento king and in gratitude for the benefit queen John gave Avignon her inheritance to the church about this time Lucino Visconti died and his brother the Archbishop remaining lord of Milan carried on many wars against Tuscany and his neighbors and became very powerful Bernabo and Galeazzo his nephews succeeded him but Galeazzo soon after died leaving Jovan Galeazzo who shared the status Bernabo Charles king of Bohemia was then emperor the pontificate was occupied by Innocent the Six who sent cardinal Egidio a spaniard into Italy he restored the reputation of the church not only in Rome and Romania but throughout the whole of Italy he recovered Bologna from the Archbishop of Milan and compelled the Romans to accept a foreign senator appointed annually by the Pope he made honorable terms with the Visconti and rooted and took prisoner John Agut, an Englishman who with 4000 English had fought on the side of the Giebelin in Tuscany Urban V hearing of so many victories resolved to visit Italy and Rome where there also the emperor came after remaining a few months he returned to the kingdom of Bohemia and the Pope to Avignon on the death of Urban Gregory XI was created Pope and as the cardinal Egidio was dead Italy again recommends her ancient discords occasioned by the union of the other powers against the Visconti and the Pope, who first sent a legate with 6000 Bretons came in person and established the Papal Court of Rome in 1376 after an absence of 71 years in France to Gregory XI succeeded Urban VI but Clement VI was elected at fondy by 10 cardinals who declared the appointment of Urban Irregular at this time the Genoese threw out the yoke of the Visconti under whom they had lived many years and between them and the Venetians several important battles were fought for the island of Tenedos although the Genoese were for a time successful and held Venice in a state of siege during many months the Venetians were at length victorious and by the intervention of the Pope peace was made in the year 1381 in these wars artillery was first used having been recently invented by the Dutch End of chapter 6