 This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. This recording is by Mark Smith of Simpsonville, South Carolina. New discoveries at Jamestown, site of the first successful English settlement in America, by John L. Cotter and J. Paul Hudson. Jamestown, a name of first rank among historic names, saw the birth of English America, here on an island in the James River in the heart of Tidewater, Virginia. The English carved a settlement out of the wilderness. It grew from a rude, palisaded fort into a busy community and then into a small town that enjoyed many of the comforts of daily living. For thirteen years, the LibriVox was a small town, until 1620, Virginia was the only English colony on the American mainland. Jamestown served this colony as its place of origin and as its capital for ninety-two years, from 1607 to 1699. After its first century of prominence and leadership, Jamestown entered a long decline, precipitated in 1700, by the removal of the seat of government to Williamsburg. Its residents drifted away, its streets grew silent, its buildings decayed, and even its lots and former public places became cultivated fields. Time passed and much was forgotten or obscured. So it was when it became a historic area, in part, in 1893 and when the whole island became devoted to historical purposes in 1934. Since these dates, the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities and the National Park Service have worked toward the preservation of all that still exist of old Jamestown and are dedicated to learning its story more completely. Thus the American people can more fully understand and enjoy their historic heritage of Jamestown. A great deal of study along many lines has been required and much more is still needed to fill the many gaps. Libraries have been searched for pictures, documents, and plans. Land records have been carefully scrutinized and old existing landmarks studied. Seventeenth-century buildings and objects still surviving in England, America, and elsewhere have been viewed as well as museum collections. A key part of the search has been the systematic excavation of the town site itself in order to bring to light the information and objects long buried there. This is the aspect of the broad Jamestown study that is told in this publication, particularly as it relates to the material things, large and small, of daily life in Jamestown in the seventeenth-century. These valuable objects are a priceless part of the Jamestown that exist today. Collectively they form one of the finest groups of such early material that has been assembled anywhere. Although most are broken and few are intact, they would not be traded for better preserved and more perfect examples that do exist elsewhere. These things were the property and the possessions of the men and women who lived, worked, and died at Jamestown. It was because of these people who handled and used them in their daily living, and because of what they accomplished that Jamestown is one of our best-remembered historic places. Written April 6, 1956 by Charles E. Hatch, Jr., Colonial National Historical Park. New Discoveries at Jamestown by John L. Cotter and J. Paul Hudson Part 1 Exploration The Ground Yields Many Things Now, during the course of this reading, I will tell you where an illustration has been inserted. Part 1 begins with a quotation by Lord Bacon as follows. As in the arts and sciences, the first invention is of more consequence than all the improvements afterward, so in kingdoms the first foundation or plantation is of more noble dignity and merit than all that followeth. End of quote. In the summer of 1934 a group of archaeologists set to work to explore the site of the first permanent English settlement at Jamestown Island, Virginia. For the next twenty-two years the National Park Service strove, with time-out for wars and intervals between financial allotments, to rest from the soil of Jamestown the physical evidence of seventeenth-century life. The job is not yet complete. Only twenty-four out of sixty acres estimated to comprise Jamestown City have been explored, yet a significant amount of information has been revealed by trowel and whisk broom and careful recording. By 1956 a total of one hundred and forty structures, brick houses, framehouses with brick footings, outbuildings, workshops, wells, kilns and even a nice storage pit had been recorded. To help unravel the mystery of land holdings, sometimes marked by ditches, ninety-six ditches of all kinds were located, and hundreds of miscellaneous features from post-tolls to brick walls were uncovered. Refuse pits were explored meticulously, since before the dawn of history man has left a story in the objects he discarded. When archaeology at Jamestown is mentioned, the question is often asked, why was it necessary to treat so famous a historic site as an archaeological problem at all? Isn't the story finished with the accounts of John Smith's adventures, the romance of John Rolfe and Pocahontas, the starving time, the Indian massacre of 1622, Nathaniel Bacon's rebellion against Governor Berkeley and the establishment of the first legislative assembly? The archaeologist's answer is that the real drama of daily life of the settlers, the life they knew twenty-four hours a day, is locked in the unwritten history beneath humus and tangled vegetation of the island. Here a thimble from the ruins of a cottage still retains a pellet of paper to keep it on a tiny finger that wore it three hundred years ago. A bed halberd in an abandoned well, a discarded sword, and a piece of armor tell again the passing of terror of the unknown after the Indians retreated forever into the distant hills and forests. Rust-eaten axes, wedges, mattocks, and saws recall the struggle to clear a wilderness. The simple essentials of life in the first desperate years have largely vanished with traces of the first fort and its framed buildings. But in later houses, the evidence of Venetian glass, Dutch and English delftware, pewter and silver-eating utensils, and other comforts and little luxuries tell of newfound security and the beginning of wealth. In all, a half-million individual artifacts at the Jamestown Museum represent the largest collection from any 17th-century colonial site in North America. But archaeologists have found more than objects at Jamestown. They sought to unravel the mystery of that part of the first settlement which disappeared beneath the eroding current of the James River during the past three hundred years. It has always been known that the island in the 17th century was connected to the mainland by a narrow isthmus extending to Glasshouse Point, where a glass-making venture took place in 1608. Over this isthmus the Great Road ran and its traces have been discovered on the island as far as the Brick Church Tower. As the isthmus disappeared at the close of the 17th century, the river continued to erode the island headward and build it up at its downstream end so that the western and southern shores where the first settlement had been built were partly destroyed. Thus the first fort site of 1607, of which no trace has been found on land, is thought to have been eaten away together with the old powder magazine and much early 17th-century property fronting on the river. In a series of extensive tests for any possible trace of the 1607 fort still remaining on land, several incidental discoveries of importance were made. One was an Indian occupation site beneath a layer of early 17th-century humus which in turn was covered by the earthen rampart of a Confederate fort of 1861. This location is marked today by a permanent in-place exhibit on the shore near the old church tower. Here, in a cutaway earth section revealing soil zones from the present to the undisturbed clay, evidence of 350 years of history fades away into prehistory. When then the enclosure of this same Confederate fort was found a miraculously preserved pocket of 17th-century debris marking the site of the earliest known armorers forge in British America. Just beyond upriver lies ruins of the Ludwell House and the third and fourth state houses. In 1900 to 1901 Colonel Samuel H. Young, a U.S. Army engineer and a keen student of Jamestown history uncovered and capped these foundations after building the original seawall. A strange discovery was made here in 1955 while the foundations were being examined by archaeologists for measured drawings. Tests showed that no less than 70 human burials lay beneath the Statehouse walls. And an estimated 200 more remain undisturbed beneath the remaining structures or have been lost in the James River. Here may be the earliest cemetery yet revealed at Jamestown, one so old that it was forgotten by the 1660s when the third Statehouse was erected. It is indeed quite possible that these burials, some hastily interred without coffins, could date from the starving time of 1609 to 1610 when the settlers strove to dispose of their dead without disclosing their desperate condition to the Indians. Here is inserted an illustration entitled, Jamestown Exploration Trenches of 1955 from the Air, Landmarks of the Old Cyprus in the River, Upper Left, the Ter's Centenary Monument, and the Standing Ruin of the 18th Century Ambler House. End of Caption The highlight of archaeological discoveries at Jamestown is undoubtedly the long-forgotten buildings themselves, ranging from mansions to simple cottages. Since no accurate map of 17th Century James City is known to survive and as only a few land tracks often difficult to adjust to the ground have come down to us, archaeologists found that the best way to discover evidence was to cast a network of exploratory trenches over the area of habitation. During its whole century of existence, the settlement was never an integrated town. The first frame houses quickly rotted away or succumbed to frequent fires. Brick buildings were soon erected, but probably not too score ever stood at one time during the 17th Century. Bearing in mind that the massive church tower is the only 17th Century structure remaining above ground today, and the only building whose identity was therefore never lost, you will find only one other identified with positive assurance, the Ludwell House, third and fourth state houses row. The remaining 140 structures so far discovered by excavating have no clear-cut identity with their owners. To complicate matters more, bricks from many burned or dismantled houses were salvaged for reuse, sometimes leaving only vague soil shadows for the archaeologists to ponder. From artifacts associated with foundation traces, relative datings and, usually, the use of the structure can be deduced from physical evidence. Unless a contemporaneous map is someday found, we shall know little more than this about the houses at Jamestown, except for the testimony of assorted hardware, ceramics, glassware, metalware, and other imperishable reminders of 17th Century arts and crafts. Churches The first church service at Jamestown was held under a piece of sailcloth in May 1607. The first framed church constructed within the palisades burned with the entire first fort in January 1608, and was eventually replaced by another frame structure after the fort was rebuilt. The exact date of the first church to stand on a brick foundation is uncertain, possibly 1639. The brick foundation traces uncovered in 1901 by John Tyler Jr., a civil engineer who volunteered his services for the association for the preservation of Virginia antiquities, lie behind the freestanding brick church tower which remains the only standing ruin today. The modern brick structure and roof enclose and protect the footing evidence of the walls of two separate churches and a tile chancel flooring. Indication of fire among these foundations was noted by Tyler. Illustration Caption A mansion structure of public building dating from the second quarter of the 17th Century, rebuilt once and burned about the time of Bacon's Rebellion, 1676. End of Caption Mansions Despite official urgings that they build substantial townhouses on Jamestown Island, the first successful planters often prefer to build on their own holdings away from the capital, once the Indian menace had passed. Only two houses at Jamestown, designed for single occupancy, have over 900 square feet of foundation area. One was either a stately residence or a public building, area 1350 square feet, located near Pitch and Tarr Swamp, just east of the Jamestown Visitor's Center. Archaeological evidence indicates that this structure was first completed before the middle of the 17th Century. It was later reconstructed and enlarged about the beginning of the last quarter, possibly during Bacon's Rebellion of 1676. Unmistakably, it burned. The second structure was a smaller, 1200 square feet, but imposing house, located near the present shoreline, considerably downriver. One of the features of this second mansion was a basement in the center of which was sunk a square, brick-lined recess, 3.3 feet on a side, and 2.7 feet deep. Among the many wine-bottle fragments in this recess were three bottle seals, one with WW and two with FN stamped on them. Whether or not this mansion can be associated with Sir Francis Nicholson, the last governor resident at Jamestown, who moved the capital to Williamsburg, we do not know. Artifacts found in the refuse indicate this house was dismantled, not burned, shortly before or after the turn of the 17th Century. The mystery of the little brick-lined recess is not entirely solved, but it is probable that here was a primitive cooler deep below the house in which perishable foods or wines were stored. Illustration Caption Jamestown House Types Simple Frame Half Timber Brick and Row Conjectural Sketches by Sydney E. King End of Caption Another illustration, Caption. Excavated foundation of a late 17th Century prototype of the Baltimore and Philadelphia row houses. Six families could have lived here. End of Caption Row Houses Although row houses, a continuous row of joined family residences on unit foundations, were a common city feature in 17th Century England, apparently they did not become popular at Jamestown. But the brick foundation of one true multiple family unit has been uncovered and two others approach this category, thus providing the true precedent for the row houses which came to characterize miles of Baltimore and Philadelphia streets and are a familiar pattern of some modern duplex apartment units. This Jamestown row house is probably the most impressive foundation on the island. It is 16 feet long and 20 feet wide inside measurement, situated east of the Ter Sentinary Monument facing south, well back from the river and the back street. A cellar and a great fireplace terminate the east end and nine other fireplaces are evident in four main divisions, which may have housed one family or more in each division. Since artifact evidence relates it to the last quarter of the 17th Century and possibly the beginning of the 18th, there would seem little possibility of the row house having served as a public building or a tavern. There is some evidence that at least part of the structure burned. Two other foundations might be classed as row houses, but are less clearly delineated. One is the last state house group of five units in the APVA grounds. Footnote 1. After the third state house burned, it was replaced on the same foundations by the fourth and last state house built on Jamestown Island, which burned in 1698. The fifth state house, now reconstructed at Williamsburg, also burned, continuing an unhappy tradition that includes the destruction of the national capital at Washington in 1814 and the Virginia state house at Richmond in 1865. And a footnote. The other multiple house is a three-unit building midway between the Brick Church and Orchard Run. This structure generally fits the description of the first state house and its three-unit construction and dimensions, and has long been thought to be the original state house building. The structure, however, is as close to the present shoreline as the first state house is recorded to have been in 1642, a puzzling coincidence if the factor of erosion is taken into consideration. Single brick houses. These were once supposed to have been very common at Jamestown, but are represented by only 12 foundations, not all of which have been completely excavated. Like the other excavated structures, if these houses can be related to the ownership of the land tracks on which they once stood, we may someday know more of their possible identity. Framehouses. Partial or even whole brick footings do not always indicate brick houses at Jamestown. Some 30 structures have been recorded which had brick footings or isolated brick fireplace foundations, the appearance of which suggests framehouses. These may be briefly classified as follows. Brick or brick and cobble, all footings with central chimney bases of brick. Two. Brick footing and outside chimney. Three. Brick footing only. Ten. Brick chimney base alone remaining. Twelve. Stone footing only. One. Cellar only, presumed to belong to frame or unfinished house or to have had all bricks salvaged. One. Burned earth floor area only remaining, presumed to mark a framehouse. One. Some of the structures encountered in the first explorations remained to be more fully excavated and recorded. Structures in this category total 23. Miscellaneous structures. Because of the inadequacy of Jamestown remains and records, it is difficult to determine the purposes for which the various outbuildings were used. Doubtless, many outbuildings did exist for various purposes and probably most of them were not substantial enough to leave a trace. Two clearly isolated, small structures properly called out buildings, discovered in 1955, are all that will be cited here. The first is the large double chimney foundation just beyond the southwest corner of the mansion east of the museum. Undoubtedly this belonged to a detached kitchen. The second is a small but thick walled structure of brick which may have been a food storehouse or even a powder magazine. Illustration caption. Although most Jamestown workshops were probably made of framework and were merely sheds, one brick foundation has three brick fireboxes and a large brick chimney. This structure was probably a brew house, bakery, or distillery. End of caption. Workshop structures. Most of the early industries at Jamestown were undoubtedly housed in perishable wooden structures that have left the least evident traces, such as frame sheds for forges and wine presses, carpenter shops, and buildings used by various artisans and craftsmen. So far only two industrial structures are clearly recognizable, aside from kilns, although their precise use is not certain. One of these on the edge of pitch and tar swamp was a nearly square tile-floored workshop with a rough but substantial brick foundation supporting the framework of the walls. On the floor were three fireboxes, two of which were associated with a large chimney area. What was fabricated here has not yet been determined, although ceramic firing, brewing, distilling, and even ironworking have been suggested. Proximity of pottery and lime-burning kilns in a small pit where iron may have been smelted may be significant. A second, very fragmentary, brick foundation close to the present river bank suggests a shop rather than a house, but lacks firebox evidence or other identifying features. It may be eighteenth rather than seventeenth century. Illustration caption. Near the foundation of the probable bake shop a pair of kilns once served for slaking lime and perhaps for firing pottery. Between the kilns was a flame-scarred pit containing evidence of ironworking and the roasting of bog ore for iron. End of caption. Brick walks or paved areas. It is difficult to assign a use for certain areas which have been paved apparently with brick rubble or in more evident cases by flat-laid bricks. Four such paved areas have been discovered. Brick drains. Three brick drains buried beneath the humus line are identified with seventeenth-century houses. Ice storage pit. So far unique on Jamestown Island is a circular unlined pit, fourteen feet in top diameter, excavated seven feet into a sandy substratum and corresponding in general character to known seventeenth and eighteenth-century ice pits in England. This pit, which lies 250 feet east of the visitor's center, may have served a spacious house which once stood nearby. It may be assumed that the missing surface structure was circular. Probably a brick, had a small door and was roofed over with thatch or sod for insulation. Kilns. Both brick and lime kilns are present in the James City area, each type being represented by four examples. The oldest of four brick kilns, so far discovered on the island, is a small rectangular pit near Orchard Run, excavated to a floor depth of four feet, which has been dated between 1607 and 1625 by associated cultural objects. This small pit, without structural brick, was a brick-making clamp, consisting of unfired brick built up over two firing chambers. There was good evidence that a pottery kiln was situated thirty feet west of the industrial area. Ironworking Pits. Also in the industrial area, near Pitch and Tar Swamp, there is a circular pit in which lime, bog iron, and charcoal suggest the manufacture of iron. The previously mentioned pit within the area of the Confederate Fort yielded sword parts, gun parts, bar iron, and small tools indicating a forge site, perhaps an armorer's forge. Illustration Caption. Making Pottery at Jamestown. A conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King. End of Caption. Another illustration caption. How an ironworking pit was used, from contemporary sources. End of Caption. Another illustration caption. Cross section of a brick cased well at Jamestown. A conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King. End of Caption. Another illustration caption. One of the intriguing mysteries of Jamestown is how the left leg and left half of a human pelvis came to be thrown with other refuse into a well behind the row house. The logical inferences that a rebel or criminal had been hanged, drawn, and quartered. End of Caption. Wells. At Jamestown, Wells are conspicuous features near many house locations. Those that have been found may be summarized as follows. Woodlined. One. Circular and brick cased. Ten. Circular, uncased with wooden barrel at bottom. Six. Circular, uncased, incompletely excavated. Four. Wells are invariably found filled with earth mixed with trash, only food animal bones. A well located immediately north of the row house had a human left leg and left half of the pelvis buried in the fill at a depth of four feet. Ditches. The most significant feature determining land holdings are the ditches of the Jamestown area. During the 1954 to 56 explorations 63 ditches were added to the 33 previously discovered, thus increasing the opportunity to delineate property lines, many of which used to be bounded by such ditches. Illustration Caption. Careful excavation was required to identify the fill of long obliterated ditches, once draining fields and marking property boundaries. End of Caption. Refuse Pits. James City, like all other settlements in all ages, had to have places for disposal of refuse. That much refuse was disposed of by casting it in the James River is unlikely. Since before the dawn of history it has been a trade of man to live on top of his own refuse, rather than litter a shore with it. While it may be that no pits were dug purposely for refuse disposal, pits open for brick or ceramic clay, or dug for ice houses, wells, or other purposes and later abandoned, were used for dumping trash. In 1955 a refuse pit almost 40 feet square was discovered in the industrial area near the workshop, iron working pit, and pottery kilns. Filled with trash from the first half of the 17th century, this pit contains such artifacts as a swept hilt rapier made about 1600, a cutlass, the breast piece, and the back piece of a light suit of armor, a number of utensils of metal, ceramics, and glass, to add to the collection of early 17th century arts and crafts. Several smaller refuse pits were noted, and it is worth commenting that many ditches finally became trash accumulation areas. Illustration Caption A cutlass and excellent preservation and many other objects from 17th century Jamestown were found in a large clay borough pit filled with refuse. End of Caption Roads Only one road identified by 17th century references has been definitely located by archaeologists. This is the Main Cart Road, sometimes called the Great Road, leading from Glasshouse Point across the Esmas and on to the island, where it can be traced as far as its passage into the main James City area just north of the Brick Church and Churchyard. A trace is all that remains of a road which once ran east-west between parallel ditches south of the Roe House. The foregoing has been a summary of the physical aspect of the Jamestown settlement from the standpoint of archaeology. An account of the arts and crafts revealed by the artifacts found in these explorations follows. The whole story relating the settlers themselves to evidence they left in the soil of Jamestown remains to be told. End of Section 1 This is the LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. This recording is by Mark Smith of Simpsonville, South Carolina. New Discoveries at Jamestown by John L. Cotter and J. Paul Hudson. Part 2 Daily Life at Jamestown 300 years ago as revealed by Recovered Objects by J. Paul Hudson, Museum Curator, Colonial National Historical Park. Here is a quote. Hitherto they, historians, have depended too much upon manuscript evidences. Perhaps the day is not distant when the social historian, whether he is writing about the New England Puritans or the Pennsylvania Germans or the rice-planners of southern Carolina, will look underground as well as in the archives for his evidence. End of quote by Dr. T. J. Wharton Baker. Archaeological explorations at Jamestown, Virginia, site of the first successful English colony in the New World, have brought to light thousands of colonial period artifacts which were used by the Virginia settlers from 1607 until 1699. A study of these ancient objects which were buried under the soil at Jamestown for many decades, reveal in many ways how the English colonists lived on a small wilderness island over 300 years ago. Artifacts on earth include pottery and glassware, clay pipes, building materials and hand wrought hardware, tools and farm implements, weapons, kitchen utensils and fireplace accessories, furniture hardware, lighting devices, eating and drinking vessels, tableware, costume accessories and footwear, medical equipment, horse gear, coins and weights, and many items relating to household and town industries, transportation, trade and fishing. These artifacts provide invaluable information concerning the everyday life and manners of the first Virginia settlers. A brief description of many of them is given on the following pages. Excavated artifacts reveal that the Jamestown colonists built their houses in the same style as those they knew in England insofar as local materials permitted. There were differences, however, for they were in a land replete with vast forests and untapped natural resources close at hand which they used to advantage. The Virginia known to the first settlers was a carpenter's paradise and consequently the early buildings were the work of artisans in wood. The first rude shelters, the split wood fencing, the clappered roof, punch-in floors, cupboards, benches, stools and wood plows are all examples of skilled working with wood. Houses Timber at Jamestown was plentiful, so many houses, especially in the early years, were of frame construction. During the first decade or so, house construction reflected a primitive use found ready at hand, such as saplings for a sort of framing and use of branches, leafage, bark and animal skins. During these early years, when the settlers were having such a difficult time staying alive, mud walls, wattle and daub and coarse marshgrass thatch were used. Out of these years of improvising, construction with squared posts and later with quarterings, studs, came into practice. There was probably little thought of plastering walls during the first two decades and when plastering was adopted, clay or clay mixed with oyster shell lime was first used. The early floors were of clay and such floors continued to be used in the humbler dwellings throughout the 1600s. It can be assumed that most of the dwellings or shelters of the Jamestown settlers, certainly until about 1630, had a rough and primitive appearance. After Jamestown had attained some degree of permanency, many houses were built of brick. It is quite clear from documentary records and archaeological remains that the columnists not only made their own brick, but that the process, as well as the finished products, followed closely the English method. Four brick kilns were discovered on Jamestown Island during archaeological explorations. Illustration caption. An early Jamestown house. Conjectural sketch by Sydney E. King. End of caption. Another illustration caption. A brick house at Jamestown about 1640. Conjectural sketch by Sydney E. King. End of caption. Another illustration caption. The majority of the locks and keys used in the early houses were imported from England. End of caption. Another illustration caption. A few 17th century hand wrought hinges in the Jamestown collection. End of caption. Building hardware. While some of the hand wrought hardware found at Jamestown was made in the colony, most of it was imported from England. Types of building hardware on earth include an excellent assortment of nails, spikes, staples, locks, keys, hinges, pintles, shutter fasteners, bolts, hasps, latches, door knockers, door pulls, foot scrapers, gutter supports, wall anchors, and ornamental hardware. In many instances each type is represented by several varieties. Citing two examples there are more than 20 kinds of nails and at least 15 different kinds of hinges in the collection. Illustration caption. Some nails, spikes, staples, and other iron hardware used at Jamestown over 300 years ago. End of caption. Another illustration caption. Some Jamestown houses had leaded glass, wrought iron, window casements similar to the ones shown here. Courtesy, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. End of caption. It is believed that wooden hardware was used on many of the early houses. Windows. A few glass window panes may have been made in the Jamestown glass factory which was built in 1608. Most of the window glass used in the colony however was shipped from England. Many of the early panes used were diamond shaped known as quarrels and were held in place by means of slotted lead strips known as cams. The window frames used in a few of the Jamestown houses were hand wrought iron casements. Most of the humbler dwellings had no glass panes in the windows. The window openings were closed by batten shutters operated by hinges of wood and fitted with wooden fastening devices. Wall in fireplace tile. Most of the hand-painted tiles used at Jamestown for decorating walls and fireplaces were imported from Holland. A few were made in England made of a light buff clay and known as deltware. The tiles on earth are decorated in blue with a conventionalized design in each corner and a central picture or motif. Covered with a tin glaze the majority of tiles found measure about five inches square by three-eighths inch thick. The edges are beveled permitting them to be set very close together at the glazed surface. The attractively decorated tiles added a touch of beauty to a few Jamestown interiors. Roofing materials Four kinds of roofing materials have been excavated plain flat earthenware tiles, curved earthenware pentiles, slate and wooden shingles. The plain tiles were made in Jamestown brick kilns and it is possible that some of the S-curved red pentiles were also made locally. Slate was brought over from England whereas most of the shingles were rived from native cedar and oak logs. Other materials used in roofing included bark, marsh grass and reeds, thatch and boards. Sod appears to have been used on some of the very early houses. Lime Lime from mortar, plaster and ornamental plaster was made in crude lime kilns at Jamestown from calcined oyster shells. The oyster shells came from the James River. Illustration caption A wrought iron window casement unearthed near an early 17th century building site. End of caption Another illustration caption Wall or fireplace tiles found at Jamestown which were made in Holland. The blue designs and pictures were painted on a white background. End of caption Illustration caption Kinds of roofing materials excavated include flat tiles, shown here, curved pan tiles, slate and shingles. End of caption Illustration caption Ornamental plaster was used in a few buildings for enhancing the beauty of both the interior and exterior. End of caption Illustration caption The interior of a small Jamestown house about 1650. Although the painting is conjectural many items shown pottery, glassware, fireplace tools and kitchen accessories were unearthed on this historic island. Painting by Sidney E. King. End of caption Plaster and mortar Plaster and mortar have been found at Jamestown in abundance. It appears that the majority of brick houses and many frame structures had plastered walls and ceilings after 1635. Some plaster found had been whitewashed while other plaster bore its natural whitish gray color. Mortar was found wherever brick foundations were located. The plaster and mortar used at Jamestown was made from oyster shell lime, sand and clay. Ornamental plaster work Ornamental plaster was found in a few of the excavations. The plaster work was done in raised ornamental designs used for enhancing the beauty of both the interior and exterior of a building. Designs that have been found include Roman numerals, letters, motos, crests, veined leaves, rosettes, flowers, geometric designs, a lion, and a face or mask. Many fragments of molded plaster cornices have also been excavated. Broken oyster shells are distinguishable in the decorated plaster work indicating that the pargetting was done at Jamestown. House furnishings Busy conquering a stubborn wilderness, the first Jamestown settlers had only a few things to make their houses cozy and cheerful. In most cases, their worldly goods consisted of a few cooking utensils, a change of clothing, a weapon or two, and a few pieces of homemade furniture. However, between 1607 and 1612 George Percy was generously outfitted with some necessities as well as much fine apparel and numerous luxury items, including a feather bed by his brother the Ninth Earl of Northumberland as published records of the Earl's expenditures for George's show. Other persons of gentle birth and position quite probably enjoyed similar goods. After the early years of hardship had passed, the colonists began to acquire possessions for a more decent living, and by 1650 the better houses were equipped with most of the necessities of life of those times as well as a few luxuries of comfortable living. Furniture Very little furniture was brought over from England during the early years of the colony. Perhaps a few chests and Bible boxes were imported, but most of the large pieces of furniture such as tables, chairs, bedsteads, chests of drawers, cupboards, benches, and cradles would have been made in Virginia. Woods commonly used included pine, cedar, walnut, maple, and oak. Illustration caption Furniture hardware and accessories found. Much of the furniture used in the Jamestown houses was made in Virginia. End of caption. Furniture hardware and accessories excavated at Jamestown include hinges, locks, drawer tools, chest handles, escutcheon plates, upholstering tacks, hasps, and finials. Most of the furniture hardware is of brass, probably used after 1650. Since much of it is skillfully decorated it is believed that it once was attached to furniture of high quality. Furniture used during the first two decades of the settlement, however, must have been simple with little or no ornamentation. Lighting devices The candle made of either tallow or bayberry wax was the standard lighting device at Jamestown. Pine torches were often used out of doors, and rush lights and candle wood were undoubtedly used in the humbler dwellings during the very early years of the settlement. Candle sticks on earth at Jamestown include a large brass picket holder, one made of English graffito wear, several incomplete earthenware holders, and parts of delft wear candle sticks. Many fragments of brass and iron candle sticks, as well as a few candle snuffers, have also been recovered. Illustration caption Both brass and pottery candle sticks have been found. The candle was the standard lighting device during the 17th century. End of caption. Fireplace accessories The fireplace, around which the family gathered, was one of the most important features in the Jamestown home. Its fire offered warmth and winter, afforded light at night, and cooked the family meals during the day. An oven, usually found at the back or at one side of the fireplace, baked the family bread and other foods. About the fireplace many home chores were carried out, including spinning and sewing, and not far from the glow of the burning logs the children learned their daily lessons and received their early religious training. Social activities were enjoyed about the hearth, especially during the long winter evenings, and when a member of the family was ill, the fireplace and its accessories were in constant use. The fireplace was the first place visited by the housewife in the early morning, and was usually the last place where she performed her household duties late at night. A fine assortment of fireplace tools and accessories have been found at Jamestown, including iron tongs, shovels and irons, parts of brass warming pans, and a large fragment from a cast iron fireback. One early 17th century and iron recovered is attractively decorated with a cherub's head and relief. Illustration caption. A few fireplace tools unearthed at Jamestown. End of caption. Another illustration caption. An early 17th century and iron in the Jamestown collection, note the cherub's head near the base. End of caption. Cooking utensils and accessories. A large and varied assortment of cooking utensils and kitchen accessories have been excavated, including kettles, pots, pans, skillets, frying pans, toasters, broilers, riddles, skimmers, skewers, spits, ladles, pothooks, trammels, cranes, trivets, cleavers, knives and forks, sieves and colanders. While only a few are complete, others are almost complete or at least easily recognizable. During the early years of the colony, people in England who planned to emigrate to Jamestown were advised to bring the following. Household implements. One iron pot, one kettle, one large frying pan, one gridiron, two skillets, one spit, platters, dishes, spoons of wood. With the exception of the wooden items all of the utensils listed have been excavated. Illustration caption. A wrought iron trammel used for hanging a pot from a fireplace crane, the adjustable hook made it possible to raise or lower the pot. End of caption. Illustration caption. An iron pot and pot fragment unearthed at Jamestown types used during the 17th century. End of caption. Illustration caption. Many earthenware vessels found were used for cooking purposes, including baking dishes, three-legged pots, and covered pots. End of caption. Illustration caption. A few kitchen utensils and accessories excavated at Jamestown. A ladle, brass pan, knife blades, fork, kettle fragments, spout, colander fragments, and pot hooks. End of caption. Illustration caption. A family enjoying a meal about 1650. Many of the eating and drinking vessels portrayed together with much of the tableware are types which have been excavated. A conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King. End of caption. Table accessories. In the small houses at Jamestown the kitchen also served as the dining room. During the early years many settlers probably ate with wooden spoons out of wooden bowls and trenchers and drank from mugs made of horn, wood, or leather. As the colony became well established these crude utensils and vessels were used less frequently and were gradually replaced with ones made of pottery, metalware, and glassware. None of the perishable woodenware, horn, or leather items have been found at Jamestown but a large assortment of more durable objects used at the table have been recovered. Space permits only brief descriptions of the more common types on earth. Knives, forks, and spoons. The table knives found at Jamestown are in length from six and three-eighths inches to eight and a quarter inches. Most of them have either bone or ivory handles, although three have embossed brass handles and one, found in a late seventeenth-century well, has an exquisite handle of banded agate. The forks in the collection also have bone or ivory handles, the majority displaying two steel prongs or tines. The number of prongs, however, has a positive identification of any particular period, as many English forks of the mid-seventeenth century had three prongs and a few had four prongs. Types of spoons excavated include seal heads, slipped ends, puritans, and trifids. The majority were made of either pewter or latin metal, a brass-like alloy, although three in the collection were made of silver. Some have rounded bowls and six-sided stems, handles, whereas those made after 1650 usually have oval bowls and flat four-sided handles. One of the silver spoons with rounded bowl and slipped end bears the initials of its owner, WC slash E, on the slipped end of the handle. This spoon appears to have been made between 1600 and 1625 and is still in excellent condition. The most important spoon in the Jamestown collection and one of the most significant objects excavated is an incomplete pewter spoon, a variant of the trifid or split end type common during the 1650 to 1690 period. Impressed on the handle in the trefoil finial of the stem is the mark of the maker giving his name the Virginia town where he worked and the year he started business. This is the sole surviving touch or mark of an American pewterer of the 17th century. The complete legend encircling a heart reads Joseph Copeland slash 1675 slash Chuckituck. Chuckituck is a small Virginia village in Nansummon County about 30 miles southeast of Jamestown. Joseph Copeland later moved to Jamestown where he was a caretaker of the State House from 1688 to 1691. He may have made pewter in Virginia's first capital. His matchless spoon found in the old Jamestown soil is the oldest dated piece of American made pewter in existence. Pottery and porcelain the largest and most representative collection of 17th century European and early American pottery which has been created in America is on exhibition at Jamestown. Thousands of fragments of colorful types have been found and by the exercise of extreme care and patience museum technicians have pieced together many early specimens. These examples reveal the kinds of pottery used in the wilderness settlement over three centuries ago. Included in this ceramic collection are pitchers, bowls, jugs, cups, mugs, pour injures, milk pans, jars, plates and dishes, pots and platters. These were used at the table as well as for the storage of foods and for other purposes. While some of the utilitarian earthenware was made at Jamestown most of the pottery that has been found was imported from England. Many types also came from other European countries including Germany, Holland, Italy, Spain and Portugal. One kind of mayolica may have been made in Mexico while the few fragments of porcelain recovered were made in China. Because of the great variety and importance of the ceramic collection a few of the more representative types will be described briefly. Illustration Caption. A few knives, forks and spoons unearthed at Jamestown. Illustration Caption. The pewter spoon handle at the top unearthed at Jamestown is the oldest dated piece of American pewter in existence. It was made by Joseph Copeland of Chukatuck, Virginia in 1675. The spoon on the bottom is a conjectural restoration of Copeland's specimen. End of Caption. Illustration Caption. A few examples of leg-glazed earthenware made in England all were unearthed at Jamestown. End of Caption. Illustration Caption. Examples of leg-glazed earthenware made at Jamestown about 1640 to 1650. Illustration Caption. English graffito or scratched ware, one of the most colorful types of pottery unearthed at Jamestown. End of Caption. Illustration Caption. English slip decorated ware although made in England mainly for local consumption, many attractive examples were shipped to Virginia during the 17th century. End of Caption. Leg-glazed earthenware. Most of these vessels were made for utilitarian purposes and were usually glazed only on the inside. While some were made at Jamestown the majority were imported from England. One type a grit-tempered earthenware was manufactured in North Devonshire. Another kind a hard-fired earthenware was also made in England. At least two distinct types of local made earthenware have been found and as many examples have well-proportioned shapes and attractive designs it is evident that they were not fashioned by a young apprentice but by a trained potter who took pride in shaping his wares. English Graffitoware. A slip-ware. This colorful pottery beautifully decorated within size designs is an English earthenware of red or buff clay on which a slip was applied. Before firing a decoration was scratched, stippled or cut through the slip exposing the darker color of the body. The entire piece then received a transparent lead glaze either clear or covered with an oxide. The English Graffitoware found at Jamestown was made near Barnstaple North Devonshire, probably after 1640. The reddish brown floral and geometric designs which decorate the vessels are unusually attractive against colorful yellow backgrounds. Graffito is an Italian word meaning scratched. English slip decorated ware. This colorful English pottery which was made for everyday use is a lead glaze earthenware decorated with a liquid clay The design was usually dropped or trailed upon the ware from the spout or quill of a slip cup. Somewhat in the manner a baker decorates a cake with icing. Or it may have been painted over a large area or placed on in molded pads. Although most of the slip decorated ware found at Jamestown was made in England, there is some evidence that a few vessels may have been manufactured in America during the late 17th century. English redware with marbled slip decoration. On this type English earthenware, which usually has a red body, the liquid slip was marbled or combed over the surface of the vessel with a toothed instrument of wire or leather to produce the effect of paper marbling. Some in the Jamestown collection appeared to have been made as early as 1625. Italian Mayolica Mayolica is a word derived from a type of pottery made on the Spanish island of Mallorca. The 17th century Italian Mayolica ware found at Jamestown is a red body earthenware with scratched or incised designs. A true scrafito-ware somewhat similar in appearance to the English scrafito-ware the desired design was scratched through the cream-coloured slip revealing the reddish-brown body beneath. On many examples colourful lines were hand-painted over or near the incised designs usually in reds, yellows and greens and were covered with a transparent lead glaze. Illustration Caption English redware with marbled slip decoration 1625-1650 period or earlier on earth at Jamestown. End of Caption Illustration Caption Late 17th century Italian Mayolica bowls End of Caption Illustration Caption A few examples of English delftware in the Jamestown collection End of Caption Delftware This is a soft pottery covered with an opaque white tin glaze and decorated with hand-painted designs usually in blues and purples. A few specimens excavated are embellished with pleasing patterns in polychrome colours. Most of the delftware on earth that Jamestown was made in England Lambeth, Southwark and Bristol although a few examples were imported from Holland. Spanish Mayolica This Mayolica is a tin-glazed earthenware with a soft body usually buff in colour and porous in texture. The colourful decorations were hand-painted on the absorbent surface usually in greens, blues yellows and reddish-browns against a white background. Some small Spanish jugs in the collection bear very crude dark red floral designs painted against a cream-coloured background. A few examples of Mayolica found at Jamestown are believed to have been made in Lisbon and these usually have designs in blues and dark purples against a white background. Salt-glazed stoneware This common but attractive type of pottery found in many excavations at Jamestown includes mugs, jars, bottles, tankards and jugs. It is very hardware which was fired at high temperatures and finished with a salt glaze formed by throwing common salt into the furnace. The surface of the body has a pitted appearance resembling an orange peel and is covered with a thin glass-like coating. Most of the salt-glazed stoneware on earth was made in Germany although a small amount was manufactured in England. Illustration Caption Colourful Spanish Mayolica found which appeared to have been made before 1650. End of Caption Illustration Caption A large German stoneware jug unearthed at Jamestown The date 1661 appears above the medallion. End of Caption Illustration Caption A few examples of German salt-glazed stoneware in the Jamestown collection all were made during the 17th century. End of Caption Illustration Caption Reconstructed wine glasses and wine glass fragments in the Jamestown collection. End of Caption Illustration Caption Note the maker's marks or seals on the wine glass fragments. Only a few English wine glasses bearing 17th century maker's seals have been found in America. End of Caption Metalware Eating and Drinking Vessels While large numbers of eating and drinking vessels made of pottery have been excavated on Jamestown Island, only a few fragments of utensils made of silver, pewter, brass, and copper were found. Metalware vessels were relatively scarce during the early years of the settlement and their almost complete absence in the Jamestown collection may be attributed to the fact that not many of them were discarded regardless of their worn condition. Only a few metal handles from mugs and cups and a small number of pewter plate fragments have been excavated. Although no complete specimens of domestic silver and pewter eating and drinking vessels were found, 17th century records and inventories indicate that many Jamestown families own such wares, especially after 1630, including cups, beakers, dishes, salts, salvers, tankards, porongers, bowls, and plates. It is of interest that two goldsmiths, two refiners, and a jeweler arrived at Jamestown in 1608 aboard the supply ship Phoenix. Although John Smith related that these artisans never had occasion to exercise their craft, it is possible that they made a few metal objects, such as stones, in the capital city. Glass Drinking Vessels Glass was made at Jamestown in 1608-1609 and again in 1621-24. It was, in all probability, the first commodity made by the English in a factory in the New World. Many glass fragments were found at the furnace site, but none was large enough to reveal what specific glass objects were made there. It appears that drinking glasses may have been among the items manufactured. The majority of the glass drinking vessels on earth at Jamestown were made in England, although a few were manufactured in Germany, Italy, and the Low Countries. In the collection are fragments from goblets, beakers, bowls, and wine glasses. Four of the English wine glass stems bear maker's seals, rare marks seldom found on English drinking vessels. Glass Wine and Gym Bottles These comprise a large and important part of the Jamestown collection. Literally thousands of glass fragments from these bottles have been unearthed, and by diligent and patient work a few complete wine and gym bottles have been pieced together. The glass wine bottles were made in England. The oldest excavated, made between 1640 and 1660, has spherical bodies and tall necks. Those made between 1660 and 1680 have cup-shaped bodies with short necks. Of the period between 1680 and 1700 the neck is very short and the body is wide and squat. In safaris is known no glass wine bottles were used in Jamestown before 1640. Illustration Caption Glass wine bottles on earth at Jamestown ranging in date from 1640 to 1690. Those of fragments of these bottles have been recovered. End of Caption Illustration Caption An assortment of glass bottle seals in the Jamestown collection. Some of the wealthy planners had their initials or other ornamental device stamped on the shoulders of the wine bottles which they ordered from England. End of Caption Illustration Caption This Dutch gym bottle excavated at Jamestown was imported from Holland. End of Caption About 1650 the practice of affixing glass seals or buttons on the shoulders of English wine bottles was begun. The seal was inscribed with a name or initials or a date sometimes a coat of arms or a crest or other device or ornament. Many of these glass bottle seals have been found at Jamestown. As a rule only the wealthy and influential planners had seals stamped on their wine bottles. Gym bottles found at Jamestown are tall and square with thin glass sides. Imported from Holland many were made as early as 1625. One gym bottle was miraculously unearthed intact and not as much as a chip or crack was found on this 300 year old fragile specimen. Food storage vessels and facilities Many earthenware jars, pots, bowls and jugs excavated at Jamestown were used for the storage of foods. Wooden and wicker containers were also used, although because of their perishable nature none was on earth. 17th century inventories list many of these perishable storage items including casks, barrels, hogsheads, tubs, bins and baskets. Leather bottles were also mentioned in a few early records. Illustration Caption Earthenware vessels used for the storage of foods. Some were made at Jamestown some were imported from England. End of Caption Illustration Caption Harvesting Ice about 1650 Archaeological excavations revealed that ice houses were built on the historic island over 300 years ago. Painting by Sidney E. King End of Caption A brick lined storage compartment was found in the cellar below floor level of one of the 17th century buildings. It was used undoubtedly for the storage of such easily spoiled foods as milk, cheese, eggs and cream. Wine, too, was probably kept in bottles in the cool compartment as many broken bottles were found inside. An extremely important discovery was a large deep ice storage pit believed to be the only 17th century ice pit which has been excavated in Virginia. The conjectural painting on page 48 shows its probable appearance when in use about 1650. Ice storage pits held dairy products, meats and other spoilable foods as well as ice. Pond ice was usually cut and stored in the pit in late winter. Sometimes it lasted until late summer or early autumn. Clothing and Footwear The Jamestown settlers of the middle class were usually dressed in hard wearing, rough clothes made of homespun material with a slightly better and perhaps more colorful costume for Sunday and holiday wear. In 1622 each Englishman who planned to emigrate to Jamestown was advised to supply himself with the following wearing apparel. One mammoth cap, a flat round cap. Three falling bands, a neckband or collar of a shirt which turned into a dress. Three shirts. One waistcoat. One suit of canvas. A suit made of coarse cloth such as cotton, hemp, toe or jute. One suit of freeze. A woolen fabric with a nap. One suit of cloth. Three pair of Irish stockings. Four pair of shoes. One pair of garters. One dozen of points. A point was a tie or string ending with an anglet and used to join parts of a costume as doublet and hose. The women wore plain frocks and petticoats although a few of the wealthy ladies owned silk, satin and velvet dresses. Bottices as a rule were long pointed and skirts were full and long. Perhaps the most unique items of wearing apparel were covered at Jamestown were several leather shoe soles and two almost complete shoes found in a dirt-lined well in association with artifacts of the 1625 to 1650 period. Illustration caption. For everyday use the Jamestown settlers wore hard-wearing clothes made of home-spun cloth, conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King. End of caption. Other objects unearthed relating to wearing apparel and costume accessories include an excellent assortment of buckles, buttons and eyelets. Items in the collection which were used in the mending of clothes include needles, pins and thimbles both brass and silver. Illustration caption. A leather shoe and several leather shoe soles were uncovered in an early 17th century well. End of caption. Illustration caption. A few buckles and buttons in the Jamestown collection. Many are over 300 years old. End of caption. Illustration caption. Home-spun clothes were seldom discarded. The many pins, needles and thimbles found revealed that mending was a never-ending chore for the busy housewife. End of caption. Illustration caption. An assortment of carpenters' tools unearthed to Jamestown. Most of them were used over three centuries ago. End of caption. Illustration caption. The Jamestown Cooper was a busy craftsman. Many barrels, hogsheads and casks were needed in the colony and large quantities of barrel staves were made for shipping to England. Painting by Sidney E. King. End of caption. End of this section. Section 4 of New Discoveries at Jamestown. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org. This recording is by Mark Smith of Simpsonville, South Carolina. New Discoveries at Jamestown by John L. Conner and J. Paul Hudson. Artisans and craftsmen. Numerous objects recovered at Jamestown are extremely important as they reveal the kinds of craftsmen and artisans who worked in Virginia's first capital, the nature of their tools and equipment and examples of their handiwork. The Carpenter. Scores of tools used by the men who helped build the Jamestown houses have been unearthed including chisels, augers, gouges, hammers, reamers, saw fragments, bits, axes and hatchets, plane blades, gimlets, files, calipers, compasses, scribers, nail pulls, and a saw rest. A grindstone was found in a refuse pit far from the historic church tower. The Cooper. Some tools used by the Cooper including drawshaves, adzes, plane irons, and race knives have been excavated. Several barrel staves probably made at Jamestown were found in a few wells. Because of the great demand for barrels, casks, and hogsheads both in Virginia and England the Jamestown Cooper was a busy artisan. His products were needed at all times especially after 1620 when the Virginia settlers began shipping large quantities of tobacco to England in wooden hogsheads. Illustration Caption Timbering, one of the first English industries in the new world painting by Sidney E. King End of Caption Illustration Caption An early 17th century two-man crosscut saw End of Caption Woodcutter and Sawyer. Numerous tools found on Jamestown Island relate to timbering including felling axes, hewing axes, hatchets, saws, and wedges. An early 17th century two-man crosscut saw has been recovered almost intact. Records indicate that pit saws were used although none has been excavated. The Iron Worker A small primitive hearth or furnace of iron may have been smelted during the early part of the 17th century was uncovered during archaeological explorations in 1955. A few miles up river from Jamestown at Falling Creek the English built their first iron furnace in America in 1620 to 21. Iron was smelted in the furnace and a few tools were forged the first iron objects made in the new world by the English. In 1622 the Indians massacred the iron workers and their families and destroyed the furnace. Although it was never rebuilt its importance cannot be overstressed for the Falling Creek site can rightfully claim the honor of being the birthplace of the American iron industry. Illustration Caption A few of many tools on Earth at Jamestown which were used for timbering, felling axes, a hewing axe, ads, wedge, and saw fragment. End of Caption Illustration Caption Making Trials of Iron Evidences of an earth oven or small furnace were discovered at Jamestown during archaeological explorations. Small amounts of iron may have been smelted in the furnace during the early years of the settlement. Conjectural sketched by Sidney E. King. End of Caption The Blacksmith In 1955 archaeologists discovered the remnants of an early 17th century forge. At the site blacksmith's tools, bar iron, sword-guards, unfinished iron objects, and slag were found. This gave evidence that a blacksmith once plied his trade only a few yards west of the ancient brick church. Many blacksmiths worked at Jamestown. There was one among the first group of settlers. In the Jamestown collection are many tools which they left behind, including pliers, pincers, chisels, punches, hammers, and a small anvil. The Boat Builder Many small boats were built at Jamestown. They were built by English shipwrights and carpenters, who came from a long line of efficient craftsmen. These small vessels afforded the principal means of transportation through the uncharted wilderness of Virginia. They were used for fishing, trade, and discovery. A few small hand-wrought iron tools used by Jamestown boat builders have been excavated on the historic island. The Potter In 1955 a pottery kiln site was discovered at Jamestown. Nearby was found many utilitarian earthenware vessels of the 1625 to 1640 period. Definite evidence of the pottery was made in Virginia over 300 years ago. Although made for everyday use, many of the pieces on earth are symmetrical and not entirely lacking in beauty. The unknown Jamestown potters were artisans, trained in the mysteries of an ancient craft, who first transplanted their skills to the Virginia wilderness. Illustration Caption Objects found at his 17th century forge site at Jamestown, building tools, bar iron, a few incomplete items, sword guards, and slag. It appears that the forge was an operation as early as 1625. End of Caption Illustration Caption Building a small boat at Jamestown about 1650, painting by Sidney E. King. End of Caption Illustration Caption Boat building tools found all May before 1700. End of Caption Illustration Caption Earth and Wear vessels made at Jamestown between 1625 and 1640. The site of an early 17th century pottery kiln was discovered on the island in 1955. End of Caption Illustration Caption Making pottery at Jamestown about 1625 to 1640. Painting by Sidney E. King. End of Caption Illustration Caption Artifacts found near the site of the Jamestown glass house, which was an operation as early as 1608. A small melting pot, part of a working hole, fragment from large melting pot, cullet, broken or refuse glass shown in lower left corner, and green glass fragments lower center and lower right. End of Caption Illustration Caption Blowing glass at Jamestown in 1608. Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King. End of Caption The Glass Blower Glass blowers were working at Jamestown in 1608-09 and again in 1621-24. The trial glass they made in 1608 was sent to England, the first glass manufactured by Englishmen in the New World. The small glass fragments excavated at the furnace sites did not reveal what was produced, but probably nothing more complicated than window glass, bottles and vials, and plain drinking glasses. It is believed that the small glass factory at Jamestown was the first English factory in America. The Brickmaker and Tilemaker Four brick kilns have been excavated, and two of them roofing tile and bricks were found. An iron spade, probably used in preparing the clay for brickmaking, was found in one of the kilns. The oldest kiln unearthed is believed to have been in use as early as 1625. Many brickmakers emigrated to Jamestown during the 1600s. The Lime Burner Four lime kilns were unearthed on the historic island, where oyster shells from the James River were burned and converted into lime by the Lime Burner. As early as 1610 Lime Burners emigrated to Virginia, and thereafter many such workers came to the colony from England. Illustration Caption Four brick kilns have been excavated. The one shown had five firing chambers. Roofing tiles were also made in the Jamestown brick kilns. End of caption. Illustration Caption A 17th century lime kiln excavated at Jamestown. Oyster shells from the James River were burned for making lime. The iron hoops which supported the arched top of the kiln buckled from the intense heat. End of caption. Illustration Caption Making lime from oyster shells in a kiln about 1625. Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King. End of caption. Other Craftsmen Contemporary records by certain objects found at Jamestown, especially small tools, revealed that pewterers, silversmiths, colliers, wheelwrights, caulkers, bricklayers, millwrights, shoemakers, masons, cordage makers, tanners, tobacco pipe makers, armorers, gun makers, braziers, and others worked in the capital city at various periods between 1607 and 1699. Illustration Caption A silversmith weighing clipped coins conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King. End of caption. Illustration Caption Brass weights and a piece of scrap brass unearthed at Jamestown. Records indicate that many metal workers emigrated to Virginia during the 17th century. End of caption. Home Industries During archaeological explorations, many artifacts relating to household and town industries were recovered. It is believed that many of these small industries were home activities carried on in the houses at Jamestown. A few of these activities and the products of them are mentioned briefly. Spinning and Weaving A few metal parts from spinning wheels and looms have been excavated, reminders that the pioneer housewife who spun the thread and yarn and wove the cloth for her large family was seldom idle. Malting and Brewing One Jamestown building or house whose brick foundations were discovered in 1955 appears to have been used for malting and brewing beer and ale or carrying out some activity requiring distillation. A few pieces of lead were found which may have been part of a lead being barley. The three brick ovens that were uncovered may have been used as drying kilns. A handle from a copper kettle was found near one of the ovens and pieces of copper and lead pipes were unearthed not far from the building. The structure itself appears to have been used between 1625 and 1660. Illustration Caption Spinning thread or yarn and weaving cloth were endless chores women living in the small wilderness settlement conjectural sketch by Sydney E. King End of Caption Illustration Caption Brewing beer at Jamestown conjectural sketch by Sydney E. King End of Caption Dairying and Cheese Making earthenware milk pans, bowls and pots iron hoops from wooden vessels and earthenware funnel dimmers, sieves and ladles have been excavated. All these are evidence that dairying was an important household industry. This activity was usually carried on in a brick paved room with slatted windows located on the northwest side of the house. Cheese as well as butter was probably made in the same room. Illustration Caption Lead and copper pipes kettle fragments a brass spigot and other items found which may have been used for brewing or distilling purposes. End of Caption Baking One of the largest objects that has been found is an earthenware baking oven which was unearthed in an old ditch near the side of the May Hartwell house. Restored from over 200 fragments the oven was probably used between 1650 and 1690. It may have been made at Jamestown molded of native clay and fired in a pottery kiln. In use heated stones were placed inside the oven and left until the walls were hot enough for baking. Sometimes however the oven may have been placed directly on the embers of the fire. It undoubtedly was used out of doors near a small house. Associated Industries A few artifacts that have been recovered are associated with millers drapers, basket makers cutlers, tailors barbers, net makers and gloveers. These tradesmen usually worked in or near their homes. Illustration Caption Earthenware milkpan, brass ladle funnel fragment and other items found which relate to dairying and cheese making. End of Caption Illustration Caption Baking bread in an outdoor baking oven 1650 Conjectural sketch by Sydney E. King End of Caption Illustration Caption In this oven a Jamestown woman baked bread over 300 years ago. It appears to have been in use between 1650 and 1690. End of Caption Illustration Caption Jamestown soldiers carrying pole arms, a halberd and a bill. Conjectural sketch by Sydney E. King End of Caption Section 5 of New Discoveries at Jamestown This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org This recording is by Mark Smith of Simpsonville, South Carolina New Discoveries at Jamestown by John L. Conner and J. Paul Hudson Section 5 Military Equipment The vast assemblage of military equipment that has been unearthed, probably the largest collection of late 16th and 17th century English weapons used in America, emphasizes the important part which firearms and other weapons play during the early years of the settlement. They help the colonists to protect themselves from the ever menacing Indian and from the Spaniards who might have sailed up the James River to attack the small colony. They were also the means of providing the settlers with much of their food. During the early years of the colony, each Englishman who planned to emigrate to Virginia was advised to supply himself with the following arms. One armor complete, light. One long piece, five foot or five and a half near musket bore. One sword. A bandolier. A bandolier was about worn to carry the cases which held the powder charges. Twenty pound of powder. Sixty pound of shot or lead, pistol and goose shot. Most of the kinds of arms listed have been found at Jamestown and will be described briefly along with other types of weapons which were unearthed. Pole Arms Parts from several pole arms including bills, pikes and a halberd have been excavated. The recovered halberd, a pole arm with sharp cutting edges and a spear-like point, is typical of the late 16th century and may have been made as early as 1575. A few bills were unearthed all dating around 1600. A bill as a pole arm having a long staff terminating in a hook shaped blade usually with spikes at the back and top. Two pike butts were also unearthed. Illustration Caption Two early 17th century pole arms, a bill and halberd, unearthed at Jamestown. Both weapons had long wooden handles. End of Caption Illustration Caption The Caltrop on Earth at Jamestown. This sharp pointed instrument was thrown on the ground to impede an enemy's infantry and cavalry. End of Caption Caltrop This small item on Earth at Jamestown is an instrument with four iron points. So arranged that no matter how it lands, one point always projects upward to impede the progress of an enemy's cavalry and to prevent surprise attacks. Swords, Rapiers and Cutlasses Types of swords that have been found include broadswords, cutlasses or back swords, and rapiers. Three examples are complete, or nearly so, a cutlass, a broadsword and a swept hilt rapier. Many basket hilts were on Earth together with guards from other types of swords, pommels and blade fragments. A number of these edged weapons were made between 1600 and 1625. Several basket-hilted guards and blade fragments were found at the site of an early 17th century forge, which may have been an armorer's workshop. Canon One small cannon barrel fragment was found at Jamestown at Jamestown. One small cannon barrel fragment, possibly from a light cannon known as a robinette, has been unearthed. The bore at the end of the barrel is only one and a quarter inches across. A varied assortment of 17th century cannon balls have also been found. Appropriate sizes for such ordnance is demi-culverines, sacres, minions and falcons. Illustration caption Firing a demi-culverine bastion at James Fort conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King and of caption Illustration caption Hilt and portion of blade of a swept-hilt rapier excavated at Jamestown of the 1600 to 1610 period and of caption Muskets An excellent assemblage of 17th century musket barrels and gun parts have been recovered from the Jamestown soil, often of times when Indians attempted to wipe out the small settlement. Among the gun-locks found are match-locks, wheel-locks, snap-honces, dog-locks and flint-locks. The first settlers were equipped with both wheel-lock and match-lock muskets. Some of the muskets were so heavy they required a forked ground-rest to shoot. Parts of two forked ground-rests have been excavated. Other muskets like the caliber were light and could be fired without the use of a support. The standard musket during the early years of the settlement was the match-lock. By 1625, however, the picture had changed for the wheel-lock, snap-hints and dog-lock were being used in large numbers and the match-lock had become obsolete. Pistols Only a few pistol barrels and parts have been unearthed. They were practically ornamented with silver bands. Light armor and siege helmet A breastplate and back-piece from a light suit of armor probably a pikeman's suit was found in a refuse pit. These interesting specimens were probably made in England during the 1600-1620 period. In 1953 Sergeant Floyd E. Painter found an English siege helmet 1600-1640 period four miles down the river from Jamestown Island. Illustration Caption A Jamestown sentry on duty shielding his heavy match-lock musket conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King End of Caption Illustration Caption Early musket barrel and gun parts excavated at Jamestown End of Caption Illustration Caption Breastplate from a light suit of armor found in a refuse pit. This was one type used between 1600-1640 End of Caption Illustration Caption A heavy siege helmet found four miles down river from Jamestown weighing over eight pounds it was one type used in Europe during the early years of the 17th century End of Caption Illustration Caption The early Jamestown settlers were advised to equip themselves with one armor complete light conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King End of Caption End of Section 5 Section 6 of New Discoveries at Jamestown This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org This recording is by Mark Smith of Simpsonville, South Carolina. New Discoveries at Jamestown by John L. Connor and J. Paul Hudson Section 6 Farming The first settlers brought seeds from England and planted wheat two weeks after landing at Jamestown. The early Virginians successfully grew many kinds of crops grain, wheat, Indian corn, barley, oats and rye, vegetables, peas, beans, turnips, parsley, onions, potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, carrots, parsnips, lettuce and others, and fruits, apples, peaches, apricots, quince, figs, grapes and melons. The colonists planted Indian corn as early as 1609 and cultivated many other Indian foods including pumpkins, beans and squash. They cultivated tobacco and Indian plant as early as 1612 and during the remainder of the century it was the most profitable crop grown. For many years it was the economic salvation of the struggling colony. Attempts were made by the early colonists to grow other crops which, for various reasons, did not thrive at Jamestown. Some plants like bananas, pineapple, citrus fruits and pomegranates could not withstand the cold Virginia winters. Other plants including rice, cotton, indigo, sugarcane, flax, hemp and olives did not grow vigorously for one reason or another and repeated efforts to cultivate them usually resulted in failure. Mulberry trees grew well at Jamestown. The leaves were used to feed silkworms but attempts to make silk were not successful commercially. Illustration Caption Tools used in the cultivation of tobacco over 300 years ago these tools, hoe, bill hook and cutting knives were excavated at Jamestown. End of Caption Illustration Caption Cultivating a small garden in Virginia conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King. End of Caption Illustration Caption A few farm tools used by an early settler for cultivating his newly cleared land. End of Caption Illustration Caption Fishing provided food as well as recreation for the colonists. Conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King. End of Caption Illustration Caption A few of the many artifacts relating to fishing unearthed at Jamestown. Fish hooks, fish gigs and lead net weights. End of Caption Hand tools used by the Jamestown farmers during the 17th century have been found in abundance. These include axes, picks, bill hooks, pitchforks, spades, rakes, mattocks, sickles, scythes, broad hose, narrow hose, and shovels. Only a few parts belonging to heavy farming equipment have been unearthed, including a few plowshares and small metal fragments from wagons, carts, and harrows. Fishing When the first settlers planted a small colony at Jamestown, the Tidewater Rivers and Bays and the Atlantic Ocean bordering the Virginia coast, teamed with many kinds of fish and shellfish which were both edible and palatable. Varieties which the colonists soon learned to eat included Sheep's head, shad, sturgeon, herring, sole, white salmon, bass, flounder, pike, brim, perch, rock, and drum, as well as oysters, crabs, and mussels. Seafood was an important source of food for the colonists and at times, especially during the early years of the settlement it was the main source. Those in England who planned to go to Virginia were always advised to provide themselves, among other items, with nets, fish hooks, and lines. During archaeological explorations fish hooks, lead netweights, fish gigs, and small anchors were uncovered. These are reminders of a day when fish and shellfish were abundant in every Tidewater Virginia creek, river, and bay. Health Keeping well and healthy, even managing to stay alive in the unfamiliar Virginia wilderness during the first two decades of the Jamestown settlement was no easy matter. In the group of 105 original settlers 67 died during the first eight months. During the hard winter of 1609 to 1610, known as the starving time, the population dwindled from 500 to about 60 as a result of sickness, Indian attacks, and famine. One of the members of the first colony was a surgeon, William Wilkinson by name. As the colony grew, other surgeons, physicians, and apothecaries immigrated to Virginia. Their lot was not easy, for it appears that they were seldom idle in an island community having more than a share of cruel diseases, swellings, flixes, burning fevers, wars, and mere famine. During archaeological explorations, drug jars, ointment pots, bleeding bowls, mortars and pestles, small bottles and vials, and parts of surgical instruments were recovered. These undoubtedly were used countless times at Jamestown by unknown chirurgians, doctors of physics, and apothecaries, men who tried to keep the colonists well with their limited medical equipment and scant supply of drugs. Amusements and Pastimes The difficult and time-consuming job of conquering the Virginia wilderness, clearing the land, building homes, and crops, and warding off Indian attacks, left few hours for leisure and amusements. There were times, however, especially after the first few hard years had passed, when a colonist could enjoy himself by smoking his pipe, playing a game, practicing archery, bowling, playing a musical instrument, singing a ballad, or taking part in a lively dance. Excavated artifacts reveal that the settlers enjoyed at least these few amusements and pastimes. Illustration Caption A Physician Bleeding a Patient Conjectural Sketch by Sidney E. King End of Caption Illustration Caption A few items on Earth at Jamestown which were used by doctors and apothecaries included our drug jars, ointment pot, bleeding bowl, mortar and pestle fragments, glass vials, and portions of musical instruments. End of Caption Illustration Caption Enjoying a Smoke in a Tavern about 1625 Conjectural Sketch by Sidney E. King End of Caption Illustration Caption A few of thousands of clay pipe fragments on Earth at Jamestown, the ones shown range in date from 1600 to 1700. During this one hundred year period the small bowls, the fairly large ones end of Caption. Smoking The first colonists were quite familiar with the use of tobacco and it is believed that many of them smoked clay pipes. Evidently there was some demand for tobacco pipes by the early planters as one of the men, Robert Cotton who reached Jamestown in January 1608 was a tobacco pipe maker. In 1611 to 1612 John Rolf had experimented with tobacco plants in Virginia. He used Virginia plants as well as varieties from the West Indies and South America and was successful in developing a sweet-setted leaf. It became popular overnight and for many years was the staple crop of the infant colony. There was a prompt demand for the new leaf in England and its introduction there was an important factor in popularizing the use of clay pipes. After 1620 the manufacture of white clay pipes in England increased by leaps and bounds. It is estimated that there are over 50,000 clay pipe bowls and stem fragments in the Jamestown collection perhaps the largest assemblage of its kind, Extent. Pipe bowls and stem fragments were found wherever excavations were made indicating that the smoking of clay pipes was an extremely popular custom at Jamestown. During the 1607 to 1700 period pipe bowls developed in size from small to fairly large. In most examples that have been found the early pipes have larger stem holes than pipes made during the latter years of the century. Although the majority of pipes found at Jamestown were imported from England some were made in Holland. Some of the colonists made their pipes in Virginia from local clay either by pipe making machines or by hand molding. The English and Dutch pipes were white in color whereas the local product was brown. As they were fragile not a single complete pipe has been unearthed at Jamestown. Illustration Caption Harvesting Tobacco at Jamestown about 1650 Painting by Sidney E. King End of Caption Illustration Caption Children's games depicted on Dutch Delftware Fireplace tiles are very similar to the games children play today. The tiles were made in Holland almost 300 years ago. End of Caption Games A few ivory fragments that have been excavated appeared to be parts of dice and chessmen. Chess was popular during the 17th century and many dice games including even an odd hazard, passage, mum chance and Novem were played. Other games which undoubtedly were played in many Jamestown homes were Tic-Tac, Backgammon, Irish, and Cards. Cards games were popular especially Primero, Trump, P.K., St. and Decoy. Many 17th century fireplace tiles in the Jamestown collection are decorated with charming little pictures depicting children's games. Activities portrayed include skating, bowling, spinning tops, fishing, rolling hoops, using a yo-yo, swinging, wrestling, skipping rope, shooting, playing Skittles, riding a hobby horse, sledding, boxing, and playing musical instruments. These pictures remind us that games of boys and girls today are very similar to those enjoyed by children three centuries ago. Illustration Caption Archaeological explorations revealed that the columnist enjoyed archery. The iron leavers shown, known as a goat's foot, was used for setting the string of a light-hudding crossbow. It was found four miles from Jamestown. Illustration showing the use of a goat's foot from weapons of pictorial history in Tunis. Archery and Hunting One interesting item relating to archery has been found four miles from Jamestown. Known as a goat's foot, it is an iron lever which was used for pulling back and setting the string of a light-hunting crossbow. Contemporary records indicate that hunting game birds and animals was a popular new-world diversion. Such sports served a two-fold purpose as it offered recreation to the settler and help provide food for his table. Parts of early fowling pieces and numerous lead bird-shot, called goose or swan-shot during the early years of the 17th century, have been recovered. Music and Dancing A large assortment of iron-embraced Jews-harps, also known as Jews-trumps, have been found. This small instrument is lyre-shaped, and when placed between the teeth gives tones from a bent metal tongue when struck by the finger. Modulation of tone is produced by changing the size and shape of the mouth cavity. As there is no record of spinnets or virginals, having been used at Jamestown, we have no way of knowing whether such wire-stringed keyboard instruments were used in the homes of the more prosperous planters together with musical instruments of the period. It is quite certain, however, that the Jamestown settlers knew the songs and ballads which were sung in Great Britain in those days. They were also familiar with English, Irish, Welsh, and Scotch dances. A few contemporary accounts reveal that the Virginia colonists enjoyed merry tunes and ditties as well as lively dances. Although living in a wilderness, there were times when they could do leisure-hour activities and amusements, including singing and dancing. Illustration Caption Playing a Jews harp, enjoying a little music in the Virginia wilderness, conjectural sketch by Sidney E. King. End of Caption Illustration Caption An assortment of Jews harps unearthed at Jamestown. End of Caption Illustration Caption A few contemporary accounts used on 17th century boats. Reminders of a day when travel in Virginia was largely by water. End of Caption End of Section 6