 Byddwydwn i'r bwysig telefyniad ooi'r gwneud oCTM, ar amdano gan cas i gyd yn gweithio'r cyffredinol. Yn gyfathiau y tifetwyd, mae'n deithas ar y cyffredinol. Pa dark itach yn ystafell am yr odd yn fudd ym Ynghylch, yn bwysig â'ch ddweud gwneud bufanyddol yn 1989, fe ddim yn gweithio eich bod yn ddwynt ymddangos. Yn cael ychydig iawn, gyn mynd eich yn alw, gyda dillun ar gyfer hynny'n mynd eich hoff draw. pan yn ffrwyr, fel wir. Mae'n mynd i'r ffarnig o'u blwyddyn. Mae'n mynd i'n mynd i ddweud o blwyddyn o'u bwysig yn ffarnig o blwyddyn, byddwn yn y blwyddyn yn y ffarnig o blwyddyn, felly mae'r cyffredin i'r ffarnig o'u bwysig. Mae'n gael ei wneud yn y bwysig o'r bwysig yw choesio eich bodig o bwysig o bwysig o'u bwysig yw'r bwysig. Rwyf i'n bywyd yn ymgyrch, o'n fwylo gyda'i, Cymryd ei wathio, cymryd ei swn, cymryd ei wathio? Gwysig yw'r ddeuиковadlau y quamotech? Felly dyma ar hynny nid. Felly angen yn ymgrifiadol. Felly angen gallu yn ymgrifwno cymryd. Mae angen am siaradau cerdd yn eto ac yn ymdyddocynnig ar ôl y cerdd. Mae gynnig ar hyn, nid yw'r cyfrifiadol yn oed o'i cyllid yn fawr. Mae cerdd o'r cyfrifiadol fel yηgr. Cerdd—na gweithio'n gan y cerddiddol. os y gallais yn oed yn fawr, neu'n gweithio. Ond y llun o gym i'r maer a'r hyn o'r cymryd iawn. Felly, mae'r cymryd iawn i'w gwasanaeth cymnwys. gan y colym o'r rhain yw'r cymunigau arebarg apaint yma ar hyn a hynny yw yw'r plwm ar brwydwyr ac yn casoddiad, ac mae gefnodau diolch yn gwirion o bobl sydd o wgogi pan yw'r arwyr i hyn i'r rhaglion o'r bhwydd o bwysig, chyddo i'r perthynau hwn ac ymddai o ffwrdd a'r cyffredin yn oed o'r ymgyrchu o'r bwysig. Roedd yn ymgyrch ar gyrtaeth s Siaradaf, ac mae efallai rhan o sylwyddiadau gan hyn, A dyma yw y ffordd i'r environment oed ein bod yn ymdod yw'r cyffredin yn ymddangos i gael, yn yn ymdweithio eich cyffredin yn ymdyn nhw'n cyffredin yn ymdyn nhw. Ond yn ddarparu oes ymdyn nhw, yn ei chweithio i'r hyffredin yn ymddangos o hyffredin yn ymdyn nhw, yw'r cyffredin yn ddwy'r cyffredin a chwylo'r cyffredin yn ymdyn nhw, yn ymdyn nhw'n ddechrau fy ngheilio yn ymdyn nhw, ddim yn ymdyn nhw ymdyn nhw, of life on earth the last common ancestor we can find is an organism that lives in hot environments like this and doesn't breathe oxygen either. So this is a good setting for life to begin on the earth and we've got settings like that we think inside various icy bodies. So if life could begin on the earth it could begin inside these icy bodies. So these are called, there's chemical energy there at the interface and these things are called hydrofermal vents. Last today bone dry with a few trickles of water coming out now and then but the surface is certainly pretty hostile for life it's bathed in UV radiation there might be things underground if you dig for them but you're not it's worth looking for life on Mars don't get me wrong but if we want to find a complex ecosystem we're far more likely to find one inside an icy moon I would argue than inside Mars. Icy moons have internal oceans and here's a cross section for a ganymede this in the middle is meant to be its iron core there's the rock everything above where I've got my cursor is water some of it is solid water that's ice some of it is liquid water now inside the body with as much gravity as ganymede the ice can take various phases of different densities and on this model which only came out a year or so ago there are oceans at four different depths so in any of those you could have life especially the lowest one where the ice is sitting on top of the rock is more chemical rich so but you could have life inside a body like like ganymede here now that deepest ocean will be very hard to get down to so there are other moons which are much which have much more potentially accessible life but just for scale it's bigger than our moon slightly smaller than the planet Mercury this is a big body thank you so here's your ropa which is about the size of our moon we know from its density it's probably got an iron core then rock then 100 or so kilometres of of water we don't know how much is solid that's to say ice and how much of it is liquid but we're sure that some of it most of it is liquid water but wait into fact interact with Jupiter's magnetic field for example and we can see clues on the surface that the ice has broken apart so down here on the interface 100 kilometres below the surface we could have hydrothermal vents we can also get the surface like this why not hydrothermal vents like this on the floor of Europe's ocean we know it's hot inside it's tidally heated we could have hydrothermal vents there supporting an ecosystem that doesn't need sunlight doesn't care whether there's an oxygen atmosphere above the icy surface I mean there isn't you don't need it you can breathe methane or whatever you just you can metabolise without the use of oxygen so as well as the hydrothermal vents if life began there it could find its way to the surface in cracks the surface ice breaks apart now and then and life could have evolved into photosynthetic life forms inhabiting these cracks so you've got an ecosystem potential on the floor of the ocean and in these ephemeraly open cracks so it could be life in cracks so here's a view of Europe the surface seen from above it's 100 kilometres across and this is a crack which is opened and closed and every time it closes it squeezes some slush out and builds up a ridge either side go to one of those cracks when it's open you could find the life in the ocean go to a crack when it's squeezed shut and scrabble around in the slush that's refrozen you could find in tomed dead organisms so yeah here's what could be inside one of these cracks some plants clinging to the walls some planktonic things which gets sucked up when the crack opens push back down when the crack closes things which crawl so you could have photosynthetic life near the surface as well as chemo synthetic life at the vents deep down and we can tell that the ocean is dynamic because look at an area like this you can see places where you've got rafts of ice which have just barely broken apart but over here the the ice has been completely disrupted and has refrozen in between that ocean is occasionally exposed to space we think okay so Europa is a big one if you want to get down to the surface of Europa to look for life it's quite a challenge but i'll come to a possible solution at the end but Enceladus a satellite of Saturn nearly five and collision diameter it's a much easier target to go for because can you see these plumes here below the south pole water is being jetted to space not as a liquid droplets it freezes straight away i mean the surface temperatures here are minus 160 centigrade so it's way too cold at the surface for life but once you can get warm water up there you're okay so we could have there's an ocean clearly inside Enceladus which is venting to space all you then have to do is fly a spacecraft through that plume and sample it and there here's a wonderful close-up of these these vents jetting a couple of hundred kilometres into space from these cracks near Europa near Enceladus's south pole fly through the right instruments you can find life because if there's life inside you should find it being jetted into space there's an the mission neck or Cassini which is flown through the plumes but it wasn't equipped to look for life nobody suspected this when Cassini was designed so that's a kind of model through Enceladus a rocky core an ocean which may not be global just to see over the south pole and tidal heat disturbing things keeping the water warm enough and venting to space um so just to look ahead to where we're we hope to go in the future um nearly two years ago now ESA announced an instrument sweet that it's Jupiter icimoons explorer a mission called juice which we hope to have open university involvement in it will orbit Jupiter it will study ganymedian detail have a few flybys through flybys of Europa as well looking for life on Europa and this was going to be my last slide until last night when this news item came to my attention it's just a NASA proposal that's just received a hundred thousand dollars as a preliminary study to develop this concept further it's a cube sat it's three things as big as a packing case three or four things as packing case size bolted together which it would go to Jupiter map go to Jupiter orbit Europa map it's gravity field and then open up and just shower these things down onto Europa's surface these are called chipsats because they're they're pretty small things um give you an idea of scale they are not they're smaller than this wonderful book planets the very short introduction 799 from amazon which i bet but probably smaller than my iphone what they are like in size is a fitness of just a few individual moon trumps cards which you can get from the OU website and these things will be equipped with sensors just to do one or two specific tasks you could kit these out to sniff out molecules to do with life land them ideally some would land besides one of these recently closed cracks and look for the signs of organic processes having gone on on Europa when Europa is hard to land on because you can't you can't parachute down share a few of these things down there robust some will survive landing on the surface maybe that's the way of the future shower a load of chipsats onto something like Europa to see if there's life um i'll have retired by the time that happens but hopefully some of you won't have and i think let's go looking for this life out there because i want to know did life if life began on the earth did it begin anywhere else if we can find that life began independently of the earth on one other place in the solar system and hey all these exoplanets out there that's carol's going to talk about surely life has begun on suitable exoplanets as well at the moment all we've got to go on is one genesis on the earth if we can find a second genesis inside inside Europa that's a fundamental change in our philosophy thank you sure any questions and please wait for the microphone any problem with um like bacteria from our world you know being put on to a pristine environment very much so um it's very hard to get a lander on mars clean a lander on Europa clean if you fill one of these things with chipsats look at all the surface area on all of these little things you've got to have them completely we can't have them completely devoid of life as devoid of life as you can before you launch and you've got to hope that most of the things die on on routes but some will survive we know microbes can survive in space there are rules in place by an organisation organisation called cosbar committee for peaceful use of outer space i'll forget what the acronym stands for and there are rules which say anywhere you send a spacecraft from earth there must be less than a one in a thousand chance or one in a hundred chance of contaminating it because it recognizes that ultimately we send something to another planet we're going to contaminate it now you may have ethical reservations about putting earth microbes in an environment where they might live it will certainly be harder to harder to study the your open um biosphere if we've taken earthly organisms there as well but ultimately if we're going to explore space we we cannot avoid contaminating these other bodies but on the other hand nature might have done it already we've got as you heard in the end stop we've got meteorites on the earth which have come from mars there'll be bits of earth rock which have been knocked off the earth and found no way to mars so earth and mars have been exchanging bodily fluids for the past four and a half billion years so life on mars could have come from earth or vice versa it's harder to get from earth to Europa so it's likely that life on Europa is independent of the earth but we need to check but it hasn't got there accidentally and we certainly don't want to deliberately not deliberately but accidentally contaminate Europa by sending a dirty spacecraft there as a question here if we've time you mentioned water and a source of energy yeah and saying well that's the prerequisite for life but we're carbon based life forms is there any chance that there's another element that life is based upon you say that you know when we've gone there we weren't looking for something is there a danger that we're not looking in the right place um there is a risk you're quite right but i think we have to deal with with with life as we know it because we know life based on carbon and using water can exist you can construct life based on silicon but it doesn't bond to as many elements or germanium as carbon does you can look for solvents other than water but they don't seem to be as good so let's begin at least by searching for things that we can recognise as life but i don't have a closed mind there could be other kinds of life but people have looked at how life might work can't come up with anything better than complex carbon based molecules and anything better is a solvent than H2O so we're probably looking in the right places though possibly not the only places two minutes about me any more questions okay a little bit off the wall why would you not accept that we have already landed on Mars or would i not accept that what hasn't already landed on Mars life from earth yeah it could have it could have we could have terrestrial life on Mars carry bear on our spacecraft which weren't clean enough or carried on meteorites from earth to Mars now i'm talking about human life that have been sent up from this planet up onto the Mars where there's underground cities and this is all done by USA and NASA there are we have actually been on Mars since well before the second world war i really don't think there was the technological capability to do that or that any conspiracy like that could have been kept secret had it have happened i could go more but i'll leave it at that but it's quite deep we are actually on Mars thank you do we want to take one more lady behind sorry i just have one question um the chips that they're thinking of sending out what are the chances of them actually landing without being smashed and being able to send back i think the idea is that they would be robust and that 50% would survive impact if you're sending out several dozens then you're going to get plenty of data back we can make bunker busting bombs which will go through several stories of underground bunkers and count how many floors they're going through before they explode to kill the bad guys so we can build technology it's the war dividend we can build technology that will survive enormous decelerations and still work so it it can be done but my understanding of a chipsat concept is that they are sacrificial some will survive some won't okay thank you