 But this is part two of lecture 13. So in the first part, we defined prejudice and we saw that there's different ways of measuring it. For example, through the IAT. In the second part of the lecture, we're going to talk about the causes and also the consequences of prejudice, because especially the consequence of prejudice, if you're part of a minority group, are huge and can be quite devastating. So let's turn to those first. So what does it mean to be part of a minority group? Well, first of all, we've already witnessed some of the very intense and very negative associations that people may have between your group, the group that you're part of, and their negative ideas. And that these stereotypes are also pretty hard to change. And one reason why this is also the case is that, sadly, members of stereotyped groups, especially stereotyped minority groups, tend to show behavior that is in line with the stereotype. So in a way, they are reinforcing their own stereotypes reluctantly. Of course, they don't want to do this, but sometimes this is just happening. And they can do so, or this happens basically in two different ways. First of all, through a process of self-fulfilling prophecies. This is a concept that you're already familiar with. So I hope that makes a lot of sense to you. So let's imagine that you have this idea that you're having an interaction with a person. It's a black male. And you have this idea of this person is probably very violent. How will you behave towards this person? Will you be very warm? Will you be kind? No, probably you will be a bit cold, maybe a bit distant, maybe already a bit hostile towards this person. So your expectation, your stereotypes is affecting your behavior. And because you are behaving in a pretty hostile manner, this of course also influences the behavior of the member of the stereotype group. So if you're approached in a very negative way in a hostile manner, this will of course also lead you to actually show behavior that is in line with this. So this is a very sad thing that happens a lot with members from stereotype groups. So if people have an idea about your group that you're probably not so smart, then we know that teachers do not actually give the same opportunities to members from minority groups to excel in the classroom, which also affects their school performance. So self-fulfilling prophecies is one of the ways in which members of minority groups actually reinforce their own stereotype. And self-fulfilling prophecies is important to know it's an interpersonal process. So it happens between people. So one person shows behavior based on expectations that evokes behavior in the minority group member. But there's also another process, and this is social identity threat. And with social identity threat, this means that just because you know that there's a stereotypical idea about your group, you will become very self-conscious and insecure. And you will actually fail just because you are so threatened by this part of your social identity. So for example, if you are part of a minority group and you have this idea that everybody expects me to be very stupid, nobody will think that I will be smart enough to take this test. You will feel threatened. You will expect that others think that you are a failure. You will stop believing in yourself and you will actually fail on tests. So this is actually an intrapersonal process. So it basically means you don't need anyone else anymore. Nobody's telling you to behave in a certain way. But just knowing the stereotype of your group evokes behavior in yourself. So both through self-fulfilling prophecies as well as social identity threat, members of minority group show behavior that is in line with that stereotype. But what happens if you're a part of a group in which they're competing stereotypes? So this is actually the case for Asian women if they have to perform a math test. So let's imagine you're an Asian woman and you're asked to do a math test and beforehand you are basically reminded of the fact that you are a female. This idea, this stereotype is activated. Then performance on the math test goes down. So it's worse. But what happens if you're reminded that you're part of a group of Asians? Then actually performance is better. So your performance is dependent on the stereotype that is activated at that moment. So we now know, and this is actually pretty sad information, that if you are a member from a minority group you are very much aware of the stereotypes that are surrounding your group. And this can actually have pretty devastating consequences. And you can see that in a following film clip that I will show you in which young children are asked to play with either a white doll or a black doll. Let's see what happens. In Brown versus Board of Education, the famous case that desegregated schools in the 1950s, Dr. Kenneth Clark conducted a doll test with black children. He asked them to choose between a black doll and a white doll. In most instances, the majority of the children preferred the white doll. I decided to reconduct this test as Dr. Clark did to see how we've progressed since then. Can you show me the doll that you like best or that you like to play with? This one. This one. This one. This one. That one. And can you show me the doll that is the nice doll? And why is that the nice doll? Can you show me the doll that looks bad? And why does that look bad? Because it's black. And why do you think that's a nice doll? Because she's white. And can you give me the doll that looks like you? 15 out of the 21 children preferred the white doll. So now we know how unfair and horrible prejudice is and what a devastating consequences can have if you are part of a minority group. So let's turn to what are the key questions of this lecture. What causes us to have prejudice in the first place? This is actually also an answer to one of the questions that are raised in lecture one. So why do we treat people differently based on their appearance? Why do we treat people differently if they have a different skin color or a different gender or a different culture or religion, sexual preference? Where does this come from? Well, there's basically three different causes of prejudice. And I will talk to you one by one about them. The first is pressures to conform. It has to do with the society that we live in. So if we live in a society, we tend to show normative conformity. So we want to behave in a way that is condoned by society. And if you live in a part of the world in which there are very strong prejudice against a certain minority group, then we tend to basically imitate this. And also if you are, for example, brought up by racist parents or grandparents, then this is something that we just simply learn that people from minority groups are inferior to us. And this is so normal to us because this is the way that we've been brought up. So we go along with this just because we don't know better. This is how we learned. And we also know that other parts of society also plays a big role. For example, the laws that there are in a certain area or a certain country. And just still, even though a lot of forms of discrimination are no longer legal, there's still something like institutional discrimination. And you see this, for example, here you see a map of the world and you see parts of the world where marrying someone from the same sex is still illegal and sometimes even involves a death penalty if you have a relationship with someone from the same sex. That's these red areas in the world. And this will affect our prejudice. And this is also very alarming if we know that also in parts of the United States and also in Europe these norms are also still changing. So discrimination can sometimes even become more prevalent than it was a couple of years ago. And this will affect the prejudice that people will display and experience. So if discrimination is institutionalized, you will create a prejudice society in which people judge each other based on their appearance or other components of their personality. So social pressures, that's the first cause of prejudice. The second cause of prejudice stems from something that we discussed in lecture five on the self. And in this lecture we saw that there's different ways that we can look at ourselves, different parts of our self concept. We have our personal identity, that's our own personal qualities and characteristics. We have our relational identity, so that's how we relate to others in our surroundings. But we also have our social identity. And social identity is that part of our identity that stems from membership of certain groups. And we are all part of different groups and they are part of who we are. And of course we know that we love to have a very positive view of ourselves. And this is also about our social identity, so we love to have a very positive view of the groups that we belong to. This makes a lot of sense because it has consequences for how we generally feel about ourselves, for our self-esteem. And this has several consequences. So if we think about our in-group, the group of people that we identify with, that we consider those are part of us, that's part of my identity, it's really my group, then there's two different processes that take place. First of all, ethnocentrism. And ethnocentrism is the belief that your group, that can be your culture, your nation, your religion, is superior to other groups. And this is basically something that we all have a little bit, but there are some groups that are very high in ethnocentricity and others are somewhat lower in ethnocentricity. And it's quite problematic if your culture is very high in ethnocentricity because if you really feel like my group is superior and the other groups are inferior, or sometimes even inhumane, this can of course have very big consequences when it comes to conflict with minority groups. So ethnocentrism, the belief that your group is superior. And we also have this general tendency of in-group bias, and that means that we want to favor members of our own group and give them special treatment over members that belong to other groups. So we just are a bit more friendly towards members of our own group. We give them the benefit of the doubt, we give them more chances and they're more likely to become our friends, which is all good and fine if you are part of a majority group. But if you're part of a minority group, you can of course suffer tremendously from this because people treat you differently because you're not part of that bigger in-group. So how do we generally behave towards members of other groups? Well, there's basically two overarching things that we do. First of all, we consider members from other groups as basically all the same. This is called out-group homogeneity effect. So you don't really see a lot of individual differences between members of the out-group. You put them all in one pile and you say, oh, you're just a bunch of Asians. So you're all the same. So we treat them as one group and we fail to see their individual differences. So that's out-group homogeneity. The other thing we do, and this is also an umbrella term, is out-group derogation. And that means that we tend to blame the out-group. We blame them for things that go wrong in our own lives. If this happens, it's called scapegoating. So for example, this is when your old neighbor complains to you, yes, it's all these foreigners coming into the country and they're taking my job. You're blaming someone else for your misfortune, that's scapegoating. But also we tend to blame people from out-groups for their own misfortune. So we tend to blame the victim when it comes to the out-groups. We say, well, everything that's wrong for you, you're just causing it yourself. So we're very harsh on the out-group. And this is everything to do with this social identity, that it helps us to feel good about ourselves, because in that way we're protecting our view of the in-group. So the final explanation of prejudice is actually the most straightforward one, and this is the realistic conflict theory. And that states that sometimes, and this is of course also just facts, sometimes groups are in competition with each other for scarce resources. And this can be very serious. For example, if it's about scarce ground like in Israel, the conflict between Palestine and Israel. And this is a very harsh conflict. Here you see what happens over time. So Palestine used to exist in 1947. After the partition plan, you see that parts of Palestine were sort of offered to Israel to start their country there. But over time, Palestine is basically just vaded away. It's nearly gone already. The only part that is left is this small green part in the final picture, which is the Gaza Strip, which is of course still also an area which highly thought about. So if groups are in competition between scarce resources such as land, then it's pretty obvious why they don't like each other, right? It can also take more mild forms. For example, competition over a sports trophy. This can also sometimes be very hostile by the way, but this is also an example of realistic conflict. So these groups are actually in competition with each other. And then it's understandable that they don't like each other. So we've now seen all these different causes of prejudice. So we sort of understand why people suffer from prejudice and especially why minority groups have to suffer from it. So in the final part of the lecture, we're finally going to turn our attention to the solution.