 Today I am going to talk about the comparative method in the study of all the Chinese. Here is my outline. My talk is in four parts introduction. The traditional approach is the theological evidence. I am going to talk about some basic words lacking theological evidence. I am going to talk about the correspondence between all the Chinese and me. Middle Chinese is the period from the three dynasties, the 6th century and the town dynasty around the 10th century. All the Chinese are languages of Chinese classical texts and common answers of varieties of Chinese. It could be the 11th century dynasties to preach the dynasties to the 121 BC or to my 10th dynasties to the 206. As you know, the diagram reconstructed Middle Chinese is based on the category of the chain. The chain is writing dictionally and he used a bunch of data from Chinese dialects. I saw in Japanese and I signed in Korean and Vietnamese. It is believed that modern Chinese dialects descended from Middle Chinese. Min dialects spoken in Fujian province are not addressed in Middle Chinese. So Min could be descended from all the Chinese or could be sister language of all the Chinese. Here, I don't think it is appropriate to use the term Chinese because all the Chinese... As I mentioned, all the Chinese are languages of Chinese texts and common answers of varieties of Chinese. So it is difficult to define what is all the Chinese and what is both Chinese. Min is really useful for reconstructing all the Chinese. But Calvin did not make use of data from Min in his reconstruct of all the Chinese. Maybe at the time, the data from Min is not so documented. But at this time, the data from Min is really well documented. So we can use the data to reconstruct all the Chinese. So after Calvin, scholars such as Brieberg, Benedict and Sturgeon and others are also working on the bi-languages and all the Chinese. They try to apply composite methods in the study of all the Chinese. These studies are based on Proc Min reconstructed by J. Norman. Norman proposed that Proc Min is related to non-symmetric languages such as Ma Mian also called Miao Yao, Kua Dai, Taikanai and other bi-languages. For example, like some words like dog or this kind of stuff. And then, five years ago, back in Sa Gou, they published a book about the study of all the Chinese from LG. And they emphasized the importance of applying composite methods into all the Chinese. They used a bunch of Proc Min. And I also used all the Chinese long words to promote Miao antibiotic languages. But the problem is that we still do not know whether these long words came from Chinese languages to other languages or came from other languages into Chinese languages. But I think some words came from all the Chinese and some words came from Tibetan language to all the Chinese. But anyway, so these long words enable us to reconstruct really complex onset like KT and NK or M Shuo K, this kind of stuff. But some scholars in China still have believed that composite methods are not always useful in the study of all the Chinese. In fact, there are some words we cannot rely on the composite method at all. So for example, the word for west has been reconstructed as, because there is not evidence to reconstruct other onset. So let's take a look at the table. So the word for west, she in Beijing, she in Xi'an, and Xia in fly. And so Xia in Japanese, Xia in Japanese, Xia in Japanese, Xia in Korean. So the word for onset is must be reconstructed as. But Angri and Sagao, they postulated SN onset based on the theological evidence, which is Shi'an connections. So these two characters share the same phonetic element, this character. So they must be homophones. So they reconstruct voices N. And I used the X-grade documents, so archaeological stuff, so bamboo sleeves. And I reconstructed SN onset for the word for west as well. And I think the native phonetic element could be useful. But so some words lack the traditional evidence, theological evidence, and others lack the comparative evidence. So in any case, we need to make more and better use of theological evidence and the X-grade documents and the comparative data just like color indeed in the LSTG. So the aim of this talk is applying comparative methods to the study of all the Chinese. And we construct some basic words lacking theological evidence. Before we go into that basic words, I have to talk about some traditional apologies. So theological studies developed in the Qing dynasty, so 17th century and 20th century. So Ryan is seeing Shijin, book of arts. But of course Ryan did not tell us anything about the onset, so I'm not going to talk about this today. And textual variations. So there are a lot of documents, so classical documents, excavated documents in China. So these documents show us the amount of the textual variations. So for example, Zhao. So Zhao Wenzi, a native person, is represented like this. So Zhao Wenzi, Zhao Wenzi, Zhao Wenzi. So we can assume that these three characters must be homophones or near-homophones at the time. So we reconstruct like this. So DR for the word for Zhao and DE, Shao and ST for the word Shao. And so we can use these textual variations to reconstruct all the Chinese onset. And I find that the long characters, it is called Jiajie in China, in Chinese. So this is indispensable data to reconstruct all the Chinese. And these long characters are used to represent another homophones or near-homophones. So like this, this character, Duan, meaning tip, represents this word, meaning short. Because these two words are homophones or near-homophones. So let's take a look at the sound change. So Duan meaning tip, T-O-N, and Duan meaning short, T-O-N. So these two characters are near-homophones, except the term categories. And then next is the phonetic series, so-called Jiaxian series in Chinese languages. So this is a set of characters sharing the same phonetic element. So let's take a look at this character. So composed of two parts, Tu, meaning art, Duan, meaning don. So this is a semantic element, and Duan is a phonetic element. So this phonetic element represents the sound of this character, Tan. And 80% of Chinese characters are phonetic elements. So we can use these phonetic elements in the Jiaxian series to reconstruct all the Chinese at the time. So these red-colored characters, they share the same phonetic element. So dan, dan, dan, and a bottom, use dan, right? So these characters have the same phonetic element, dan, meaning don. So they were homophones or near-homophones at the time. And these characters are the traditional category, or initial category in the traditional studies. So Duan represents the voiceless, unaspirated, dental stop, or something like that. So this is about the sound chain. So TAN, T-H-A-N, D-A-N, T-L-A-N, T-A-N, kind of like this. So traditional approach is highly reliable, and we are working on it right now. But not always rhyming the classical texts, right? And not always have the Jiaxian connections. Not always represent the sound being used at the time. So some basic words lack theological evidence. So it is not easy to define the basic words, right? For convenience, I'm just focusing on these five words, water, a few, head, hand, animal. So the word for water has rhyme evidence, so I check it in the box. But it doesn't have any other evidence, no other evidence, so I didn't check it in the box. And these five words had SY on set in middle Chinese, actually C. And these SY on set came at least from five old Chinese on set, or maybe six. But anyway, so the word for to write, writing, came from ST and changed to SY. And so easy came from Voices L, changed to SY. Indulgent came from Voices N, circumstances came from Voices N. So two paradigms came from QH. So they were attested in Jiaxian connections. So if SY has Jiaxian connections with TTH, DTSY, TSHY, these on set in middle Chinese, we can reconstruct ST for this word, kind of like that. So, yeah, so as I mentioned above, so if SY has Jiaxian connections with NNRNY, we can reconstruct Voices N. And these five words came from any of them. So ST, Voices A, Voices N, Voices N and QH. And so the word for water and the few, so no evidence for the word for water and the few in the classical text, so I didn't check in the box. So, you know, rhyme data does not tell us anything about the on set, so we cannot use this data to reconstruct all the Chinese on set. So some scholars think the word for a few has been thought to have Jiaxian connections with Miao, meaning very small or minute, and a Xiao, meaning small. But under the Jiaxian principle, middle Chinese SY does not have Jiaxian connections with M and S. So there is no M and S, right? So I think the word for a few does not have Jiaxian connections. And the word for head and head, so actually the word for head has Jiaxian connections with Da, meaning way. So both two characters share the same phonetic element, right? Head. But we don't know whether the head came from ST or Voices L based on Jiaxian connections because so SY, if SY has Jiaxian connections with D, we can reconstruct ST or Voices L, right? So this data, so Dao, is not useful for reconstruct the word for head. So we still do not know whether it came from. And the word for hand, this is a really complicated problem. But I remember 1995 pointed out that the characters Chou and Chou, both meaning hand characters, the textual variations, and the characters Chou, meaning hand, and Chou could be the phonetic element for the character Chou and Chou. So these two characters are textual variations, both meaning hand characters. And Chou and Chou are phonetic elements. So if they are phonetic elements, it could be homophones. So Chou and Chou have the nasal onset in phonetic series, so Nio. So they share the same phonetic element, right? So since both two characters have the Shieshian connections with Nio, and Nio has nasal onset, so we can prostrate the Voices nasal for these characters. And I'm going to join Sagao prostrate the Voices nasal onset for the word hand for this reason. And what interests us is that both head and head are homophones in the Middle Chinese like Chou, kind of like that. So if both hand and head have been homophones in all the Chinese, it would have been difficult to distinguish between two. But eventually the character Chou would be replaced with the character Chou, also meaning head. So in the early Middle Chinese, so before hand and head matched into one. So this is very interesting. So as I mentioned above, these five words don't have theological evidence, so we cannot reconstruct all the Chinese onset. So let's take a look at the correspondence between all the Chinese and Nii. So by Nii being the Chinese name of Baxia, he wrote the paper in Chinese, so I just write his Chinese name. And he noted that Middle Chinese S-Y correspond to Voices and aspirated Afriket T-S, and aspirated T-S-H in Amore Shiamen. And the correspondence of T-S in Min to Middle Chinese S-Y reflects all the Chinese S-T. And the correspondence of T-S-H in Min to Middle Chinese S-Y reflects all the Chinese voices resonant, so Voices N and Voices L. So Anakitani and I reexamined these hypotheses by means of the data from a broader range of dialects and excavate documents, so let's take a look at this table. So these two words have S-Y onset in Middle Chinese and correspond to T-S, aspirated Afriket in Min. And these two words have S-T onset in Old Chinese, so they were attested in S-Y connections and theological stuff. And these two words like T-S and word for slow have S-Y in Middle Chinese and they correspond to T-S-H, aspirated Afriket in Min. And these two words have Voices L in Old Chinese, and they were attested in S-Y connections. So we can use this correspondence to some basic words lacking theological evidence, so let's take a look at the word for water. So water S-Y corresponds to T-S, so an aspirated Afriket in Min, so we can reconstruct the word as S-T. But without this data, we couldn't reconstruct basic word water, right? So this is really interesting. And then the word for a few, so a few is the same thing, so correspond to T-S, so an aspirated Afriket in Min, so we can reconstruct this like stale kind of like that. And word for head, so as I mentioned above, the head has S-Y connections with weight, and the weight has D in Middle Chinese, so we don't know whether it came from S-T or Voices L. But only Xiemen amoi, the word head has the aspirated T-S-H, so we can prostrate Voices L. In addition to this, the onset L, Voices L is manifested in the X-grade documents from the clone, so I got this phrase, let the people step on. So this character, Tao Wei, represents step-on Tao. So step-on Tao is reconstructed like LU based on initiation connections. And then here's my hypothesis. So the characters having L only can represent the words having L in the bamboo sleeves. So the word for Wei represents the word having L, so we can prostrate L for the word Wei. And also the head is a phonetic element Tao, right? So it becomes like Voices L, kind of like this. And then the word for hand. So the hand is S-Y in Middle Chinese, and it corresponds to T-S-H, aspirated African in Min. So we can assume that the word for hand did not come from S-T, but this data do not tell us where the hand came from or Voices L, I will link it. So we cannot reconstruct the word for hand on set. So in this case, we can use the anger's high perspective or Sagao's perspective. So use these textual variations to reconstruct the onset of the word for hand. And the word for wide animal. So wide animal does not have initiation connections, and data flow mean does not tell us anything about the onset, only dental freakative. So there's no correspondence. But we can find phonetic clone. So the character wide animal represents the word show, meaning keep. So this word keep, defend, does not have initiation connections, but the data flow mean could be useful. So the word for keep and defend S-Y correspond to T-S. So based on this correspondence, we can reconstruct the word for keep and defend S-T. And based on the high process I mentioned above, so the word having L must represent word having L. So in other words, word having T must represent word having T. So based on this hypothesis, we can reconstruct the wide animal like S-T. So I just added data flow mean. So these five or six or seven words that don't have theological evidence, but if you use the data flow mean, we can reconstruct these words. So the thing I want to do is I want to make this data available openly because the probability of reconstruction is different from each words, right? So I want to make it available openly. And then in addition to mean, so gu zhan, so a variety of Huashan dialects spoken in north western Hunan show the same correspondence, like middle-gen is S-Y, gu zhan T-S, so to write an aspirated African, right? T-S and T-S, the word for word T-S, the word for a few T-S. So, yeah, Huashan is here, fujian, mean is here. So some schools think so mean, they put mean and Huashan into one branch, but I'm not sure about it, but so Baxiang and Sagao said some features in Huashan appear to be shared with mean, so about they maybe shared the retention rather than shared innovation, so it would be premature to put them together with mean in a separate group. And then I know some scholars with Huashan and Tzaijia, Tzaijia is spoken in Hunan province, oh no, Guizhou province, they put them into one branch, but I just came back from Guizhou, so I'm researching Tzaijia languages, and I researched 600 words, something like that, but I couldn't find the same correspondence, like S-Y and T-S, so we're still working on this. And I added the data from Guizhou and Huashan, so as I mentioned above, I want to make this data available and then let others do know the probability of reconstruction. So we've concluded, so it is indispensable to use theological evidence in all the Chinese, but some words, of course, lack this theological evidence, so in this case, we have to use comparative data, so as for reconstruct of Middle Chinese S-Y, so the data from mean dialect is really useful and helpful, but they do not always show us about every difference in all the Chinese phonology, so some words lack the theological evidence and others lack data from dialects and other languages, but in any case, we have to make use of these data, both these data, theological evidence and comparative evidence, just like Bergstein and Saigal did in the study of all the Chinese, so thank you, thank you very much.