 So we've got questions, the question is, we've got butterflies and pepper. So some diverse, but interesting topic. In case you didn't notice, the open public library is here. So yeah, we are here. It's the library. So if you haven't yet got a library card, what the hell is wrong with you? Make sure at the break that you sign up for one. We also have these list of resources that match the topics of the talks. So if you want to learn more, you don't have to do research right there. Awesome resources available for you. We also have Broke Cheese Guy. Yeah, I can tell you she got a bigger chair. Multiple options with your flavors of Broke Cheese, really delicious. And tonight's time is special because we have a guest co-goss, a guest host. Our friend of the show, Lee. Come on up, Lee. Everything I want to wrap this up. Lee is the former boss of Nerd Knight Madison, right? Yeah. Now we're located in Bay Area. So he's going to be Rick for tonight, but I'm still going to be me. So our first speaker, not only is going to talk about horses, our friend of the horse. Yeah, part of the red. So you're all nerds. Presumably you know that... How do I see my notes? Because I've never, ever, ever, ever... This is so... Help me see my notes. All right. So presumably you know that horses, the domesticated horse that we know, are introduced to North America in like the 16th and 17th centuries by Europeans. Raise your hand if you knew that. You'll know that. But do you know, though, that horses are actually native to North America? Yes. Yeah, okay. Yes. You are. It'll... I'm going to forget key information. Also, this is important. How do I... Sorry, guys. Slight, I know this. Okay. Got it. All right. Let's come back here. So yeah, I'm going back to this wonderful land voyage that occurred between Asia and North America across the Bering Strait. It's a really land map. And so this is a picture that you probably have in your fifth grade social studies textbook showing the migration of humans from Asia into North America. But small horses were originally like the size of little dogs. And they originated on this continent about 35 million years ago, between 35 and 56 million years ago. It seems like a big gap, but I guess in these terms it's not that big. So around four million years ago, they became the genus that we know as modern horses in Equus. They occupied North America for the entire place to see in Epic until they went extinct in North America. But some of them crossed the Bering Land Bridge and went into Asia. And then into Europe, and most became zebras and dungies and the horse species that we know today. So they survived even though they were completely wiped out from North America. Oh, they after that. Okay. So this occurred, this extinction of the North American horse occurred at the end of the place to see around 12,000 years ago. So a couple of things are going on at that time that are clearly connected, global cooling, the extinction of a lot of other large mammals, and of course the arrival of us, which interestingly tends to correspond with a lot of environmental changes. So the coolest people were the first Americans. We know they hunted large mammals. We know that the mammoths went, the willing mammoth went extinct within like a few hundred years, I think, of their arrival. So evidence now suggests that the Clovis people definitely hunted horses. Clovis tools have been examined and they found proteins from horses. So they clearly hunted horses for food. So do humans have anything to do with the extinction of a horse in North America? Probably not. The chests that horses did survive on the continent a lot longer than they thought and probably overlapped with people for up to maybe even 6,000 years. The horses when the humans arrived were already on the decline due to changes in climate and the resulting changes in vegetation. But the way the evidence suggests climate and vegetation changes were really appropriate. But lots of big mammals disappeared around the same time as horses in North America and I thought this was kind of interesting. The woolly mammoth, as I just mentioned. Sabertooth cats, which we all know of. Woolly rhinos, I think that was my favorite extinct North American, the short-faced bear. I really love this because it gives you perspective on how gigantic the bear is, but also American camels. Yeah, look at the size of that thing compared to this thing. Okay, the woolly rhino is my second favorite and my first favorite is the giant rhinos. These things work huge, right? They put rogans in an unusual size to shame. I think the story of the horses in North America is really fascinating. If you'd like to learn more, I know you're not going to memorize this URL, but go to horsetalk.co.nz and look at horses in North America and you'll find the article I got all that information from. And it's really worth a read, it's really detailed and quite fascinating. So here to talk about horses and our relationship with them today, specifically as proteins to the elliptic, is doubling. Again, for my second talk, I was raised in a family that competed in question sports that's been a part of my life since I could remember. And I have luckily been able to compete at the relatively high levels in show jumping and eventing, so I do have some of the background in sports. And I'm really into it, so if anyone wants advice about riding in the East Bay or in the Bay Area, come to me afterwards because I'll talk to you about it further. Okay, so the equestrian sports made their debut in the 1800s, some of the Olympics. There were five events, none of which are in the modern-day Olympics. They then disappeared from the 1904 and 1908 Olympics when returned in 2012 with the sports that we have currently today, including massage, which is a non-jumping event. Eventing which includes three disciplines, one of which is cross-country and also short-jumping. And you may notice that in the last three slides, all of the men were wearing military outfits and that's because, one, the events all came out of Calvary exercises and the cream and two, because until 1952 only commissioned male military officer who were allowed to compete in the Olympics in these sports. In 1952 they were open to civilian men as well as women in massage and then in 1958 they competed in cheer-humping and in 1964 they were allowed to compete in eventing. It's one of the few Olympic sports where men and women compete alongside and against each other. I think Pearl is the only one that comes to mind. And it is a sport where the human athletes can enjoy a lot of longevity. There's a Canadian children who's competed in 10 Olympics already and who's probably going to be in the next one. And there is a US, a former US eventing rider who competed in 7th Street Olympics and he only stopped because he fell into drugs. So, just very briefly, it's a very difficult sport to be into. It's very extensive. D-training and teams used to be subsidized by our government decades ago and that fall out of fashion program because there's not a lot of money left around for it. There are some European nations and now the United Arab Emirates have more money than probably government that funds these programs. They all gave money to their Olympic teams or their international teams but it's not a lot for the US. So these riders, if they're not born into multiple families, have to have owners that buy them horses and sponsors for their equipment and horses feed and their equipment. So it's pretty tough and it's a lot of long hours and they really have to love it. The horse is probably the most expensive. Part of this, a lot of these riders will train them from an age but people do buy a large train to try to get ready for these large international competitions. And just as an example, a dressage horse, so we're talking about this one, sold in 2010 for somewhere between 10 and 15 million dollars and then a horse that does the shoe jumping, so this portion, was sold in 2013 for 15 million dollars. And then the riders that bring these horses up from younger horses have to pay for their equipment, the horses' equipment, veterinary care, which now includes peregractic, acupuncture, laser therapy, massage. They have to pay for the horses' board, perhaps for training, veterinary care, insurance, a passport, shooting every six weeks insurance, and transportation, which from one continent to the other one is about 10,000 dollars. Our first sport in the Olympics, and this is from the 2012 Olympic Games, is dressage. So I'm just going to point out here, these, what look like fireboxes are actually letters, which are standardized, and then the ring is measuring leaders, and there are judges positioned here, here, and these three weeks here. So it is a subjective dressage sport. This sports, by the way, is your individual and team goal medalist from the 2012 Olympics, and also the world champion and holds a bunch of records for high scores. The horses perform a set of predetermined movements that are based on the leaders and the letters in the ring, and they are judged on their agility, obedience, accuracy, flexibility, and the quality of their movement. They are scored by those five judges, which can catch every little mistake that they make. The term dressage is strangely from French, meaning training whole bear, like to call it fancy printing, as we may have seen during the last presidential election. It's often referred to as horse ballet, and you can probably see why. The roots take back to Xenophon from the 4th century BC, and the principles of classical or modern dressage were developed in the Renaissance sports in Italy, and survival of the centuries was credited to the use of horses in military pursuits in Calgary schools throughout Europe. Today modern horses are great specifically for this discipline, and they have a movement that is far more extravagant and expressive than the horse that we saw from the 1912 Games. So in the Olympics there are three different tests. One is the main ground pretest that everyone does, then there's a shorter test that concentrates on specific movements that helps select who's going to go into the individual competition, and then they do the most fun part, especially for people who don't know this sport. They each ride a four-year-round to test to music. The judge has the test beforehand, so they know when they're supposed to be performing each movement, and it's pretty entertaining. So just to show you how awesome these animals are, we're going to use a small mode. This is the safe watch, by the way. So here's the gate. The horse is traveling diagonally across the running and crossing its legs. It's called a half-pass. This just shows how it's safe, the horse and the animal are. They make very minute commands to the animals. This is just watch when the horse can be relaxed. There's happy quotient to me. This is a fairway where the horses have three big gates, and as you see circling around the tiny legs and barely moving them, these are flying changes, and we have a happy one over there. They also do extended gates or shortened gates, where the horse changes the length of its stride without changing its speed, which is pretty difficult to do. And then another famous gate now is the peyote. I need to stop. Oh, okay. I was not looking at the horse. It's really fun. Okay. But just flying wasn't good enough to win that big dazzle. All of your feelings have really been what I had to do. It's actually a position and a key to stay on. That's where we got to move to. So the peyote, the thing we have on the horse, is an energetic, a small in-plate, and watch the movement of the horse in time. It's really accentuated. And this is actually what it's training horse to do. The riders are using leg commands to lift the horse out. So really quickly, here's the spread of team medals is picking everyone's ass. Also the individual medals, but not as much. The U.S. has actually gotten a lot of bronze medals recently, so we're doing it pretty well. Okay, the next sport is show jumping, which is what I have most recently done. This is also a view of the rain from the London Olympics. Remember, I mentioned money. This one wasn't on the Olympics, but she's a very, very good rider. Her name is Jessica Springsteen. Yes, that's Springsteen, family. And the horse she's riding was on the British gold medal team from the 2012 Olympics. So you can imagine she's riding very pretty penny on this animal. So here the horse and riders jump over a pre-determined set of fences in a ring. They fall down very easily. So it requires a lot of accuracy from the rider and the horse. A very athletic animal, a very good plan and a lot of luck. The horses are between 10 to 16 efforts. The jumps are up to 5 feet, 3 inches tall and 6.7 to 7 foot, 2 inches wide. There are also jumps that they have very low hang that are open water jumps and they can be up to 15 feet wide. We'll see them later. And the speed is generally about 400 meters per minute which is around 15 miles per hour. So she... You've got defenses that are single, they're not related to one another. Ones that are only 1 to 2 strides apart which are called combinations. And there are some that are what you call related distances. So they have maybe 3 to 5 strides or strides apart. Here's a little bit of slow-mo. This is that one diagonal. So riders, you get to walk the horse before the event so that way they can determine the distance between the fences, what's the best and the fastest road. Things the horse might be scared of. Something like that. So there are... Let's just give you an idea of how big these senses are. And this is one of our U.S. team members who lost games. And here is a slow-mo. Here's a little water so you can see how wide this thing is. Competition is incredible. And there are 2 additional rounds at the end that the top 35 individuals can keep in. It's 4 faults if you knock one of the rails down. You can take the whole fence out before so you guys won't do that. It's 4 faults if your horse refuses to jump. If the horse refuses to jump a fence 3 times. Anywhere on the horse, you're eliminated. Fallow Rider is an elimination. And then you get time penalties for every second over the optimum time. And these fences get huge in the individual games. Like I said, this requires a lot of accuracy. I don't think any horses were harmed in these falls, but when you are not accurate, this is what can happen. I'm here as a Rider to stretch the distance to the fence. And they do actually tell the horse when to take off. A lot of sort of diesel and a lot of fall. And here are the horse which stretches the width of the fence. Serious injuries are actually very rare in the sport. The next one, though, is a different story. So again, in the Team World Metal Germany dominance, USA did have a good run in the early 80s. And again, in the individuals, Germany is just above France. The next and last sport is eventing, which is basically the equestrian version of the triathlon. It includes the resize. So that first phase we saw at a much lower level. And then you do the endurance phase. This is one of the fences you can see. And then there's also sure jumping at, again, a lower level. So these horses have to be able to do everything. Just before I move on, the fences, the drops. So this is a bank down with the London skyline in the background. They can be up to 6 feet, 7 inches high. And this is the view from the backside of that fence. And as you may be able to see, the riders then have to proceed straight down to this fence, which is only about 3 feet wide. They do have alternate options for riders who aren't as experienced, but those fences can be up to 3 foot, 11 high. So this is not easy. And here are some... This is a U.S. event, but it's at the same level as the Olympics. So the cross country mimics what horses used to see in battle. Which would be ditches, water jumps, banks, logs. Now the horses are more seriously constructed. There are generally 32 to 48 efforts. The horses are traveling at 570 meters per minute, which is around 21 miles per hour. The fences again are 3 foot, 11. The width can be 5 foot, 11 inches at the highest point. And it can be 8 foot, 11 inches at the base of a jump. Again, the drops can be almost 7 feet. And here's more of a direct point of view of a water jump. And again, the riders walk these horses generally with a meter rail because they can be very accurate at the time. And this just shows how massive these things are. They're not as tall as the show jumps, but they are really scary. And here's another digital wall. So faults are... 20 faults for a refusal to jump, 40 for the second refusal, and then you relate it after 3. If you fall... A fall of horse rider is now in elimination. It used to be able to get back up and go again. And then their time faults are 0.4 faults per second over the time. At lower levels, you get faults for going too fast because they try to promote safety. And you will see why. So these are some of the top riders in the world. But these fences are pretty solid. So if you made a mistake, you're probably going to fall. There are no statistics for falls that the Drosology insurance are being competitions. The FBI however just recently started tracking falls and injuries at the top levels of international sport. Because it's a lot more open to the public eye, work travels fast about these things and they're trying to make the sport safer for humans and riders. For instance, there was a year between 2007 and 2008 where 12 riders died. And 5 riders have died in the past year at this sport. So there are a lot of improvements that have been made. Riders now wear vests that blow up like a balloon if they fall off or like an airbag. Now you're limited if you fall off. So if you have a concussion or a horse is hurt, you can utilize it if you've done. Your FBI or the international government body can give out yellow and red parts like in soccer. You can certain events if you rode them safely. And they're now making jumps. So like you see here, this is a vintage jump. But now these type of fences are being with what are called granule pins. So there are pins at the support posts where a certain amount of weight is pushed on them. They fall down and that prevents rotational falls which cause them to really get injuries for a horse or rider. And they do get faults for breaking them but they're only 11 points so it's not that bad. So this has actually been shown to reduce the number of rotational falls at least in the early 2000s when they started collecting data. But this is why I stopped doing that sport. So again, Germany and USA actually tied for gold medals. They've been doing better recently. And then for team medals, New Zealand and Germany are at the top. And there's just one last final photo that shows you how diverse these animals and riders can be. So I hope you've learned a little bit about them. And I get three questions. Yes. So the question was, is the first time horses go to this competition, is this the first time they've seen a horse where is the rider sitting before? And that's correct. So the horses have never seen the jumps. They of course practice them at home and you set up the same sort of combinations and obstacles so that they can see it. But you really go through the full five to 12 minutes run. I'm going to do one at the back bar right there. He asked, men and women compete equally but what about the horses gender? The horses gender is the same. You're going to find more male horses that are gilded, which means they are no longer stallions. Because they're easier to train. And female horses, I know it's very typical but they're a little hard to handle. So one more. Yes. So that's complicated. There have been studies that show what you do to find what's called a distance. It's generally about six feet from the fence. It's different if the fence is wide or higher or the way the horse jumps in style. You kind of learn that. But if they're not going to want to jump it, they'll do it anyway. Your job is kind of just you place them there at the right RPMs and the right speed and the right shape. And they kind of know to do it. So when you start them very young, you do pulls on the ground and there are little jumps. So if you're not keeping them at each fence to be like now you jump, you just kind of get in there at the right spot and then they do it. And if you don't do it right, then they fall or you fall like you do it all. Thank you so much. Congratulations. I'm going to go ahead and write down some things that are questions for us when it comes up. So we're going to take a time limit break. Center? That was pretty good. Okay. So I am leaving. I'm actually turning these things off because I can't even remember myself up here. I'm not going to help all of our problems. I'm going to help some of them. All right. Please give to the cemetery. I'll be open where you can stand and make beautiful big views like this. I'm going to be up there to open center for the cemetery. It is that if you haven't, there's lots of good people there but it's got beautiful views. So I guess that's a good big person if you don't define lots of good people. If they're not there, I guess they're going to be there wherever they are. They're not there. They're probably there. Anyway, I was there one day people do just like chilling out eating some food like just like having kind of a picnic like really beautiful relaxing day and and I there are these two ducks they're kind of just laying out. It's just a perfectly pleasant day. There are two ducks, they're really pretty and they're like walking around and one of the ducks was like looping. It's like well I've never seen a looping duck in my whole life. This is pretty weird. And then so then I was just like watched it and I felt kind of bad for the duck but had no idea what was going on and then eventually I decided I was going to kind of investigate this a little bit further. I noticed that it's like it's not looked like this like a normal foot. It's foot was like all gross and brown and disgusting. I was like this is awful. I wonder if it would be helpful for this duck. I tried chasing the duck but it did not help the duck at all. I discovered that basically a clam had attached itself to the duck's paw like what paw? It's not a paw, it's like a foot or what a webfoot. And it attached itself and I was like well this is pretty crazy, I can't believe that happened. But then I was thinking there are other things to do the wrong way for me. And I was just like why in the world would this happen? They don't have like any guesses why this would happen. I think someone could do it. I have you know natural, okay several days drop off, why don't we really want to do that because it's really fucking slow to like walk around as a clam you have like very few options. It's like there's this thing and there's not much else but if you're a motherfucking clam that has attached itself to her you can really fucking move. And so I went home and I'm just like this is crazy and my friend at the time she did some googling about like Darwin kind of proposed the same thing back when he was writing all this evolution stuff and for both kind of did some good, this is like Darwin's drawing and he did and proposed the same thing which is pretty amazing. I love chemistry and biology is pretty fucking cool, you gotta admit it. So with that, prepare to have your minds fucking melted by our little bartender who's gonna come up here and talk to you about butterflies and genetics and he has the most amazing opening side that I've ever seen in my life. So if you go try it out! I'm going to talk today about corpareons incident corpareons or every morning they show especially especially in butterflies and mops that group of animals who are corpareons have been really, really good out of control. Thank you very much. So I'm talking about genetic tattoos but you have to realize that by genetic tattoos it's not the same thing than the tattoos that we have on us or seconds of course tomorrow we are going to have DNA versus acquired butterflies and mops have patterns that are encoded into their genes into their genomes while we need a tidal wallet but actually I was looking at the literature and there is an exception in mops here you have the pages of a lot of mops you know that I love it and it's here it's perfectly camouflaged it's actually called the camouflage maneuver and it's doing this not with its genes it's actually cutting around pieces of the environment that's taking it on itself that's amazing so this is an exception most parents in nature are genetic so she is an interest in our other styles it's pretty classy to have a large high spot in the lobby I'm going to show you a few patterns from the lobby that appear to be pretty amazing here's a lava that is milking the catkin which is a fruit for the oak trees and here it's a little grove it's the same species but it's impaking the twig of a birch tree so here there's the same species that can camouflage on two different species of plants so the genome has the capacity to devolve forms both types of camouflage and the lava is detecting cannibals in the diet and this idea it's very spectacular I'm going to show you a demo of this place here's a lava that is milking the birch tree so my dogs sometimes they are not milking the birch tree here's a lava that is psychedelic my sense I'm going to show you a demo of this place here's a demo I'm going to show you a demo of this place let's go to the demo it's a scale let's go for stars for wings and here's a background which is a magnified version of the butterfly wing and you can see the stars the little elements of color the powder that you made on your fingers and it's okay when you come back right? so wings are made of these elements pixels of scales and each scale is secreted by one cell each scale is a one dead cell so we have this system of pixels with each pixel one color the color can be made by a pigment especially when it's in the dark brown in the red, in the yellow ranges but really you have all sorts of colors and butterflies sometimes they are produced by a nanostructure and which are more diffraction based effects so it's very important for me to tell you but like about terror or crucible or diversity 200,000 species is absolutely huge it's 12% of all known species on earth when you move the macabre stuff but 20,000 butterflies which is still a lot so here you cannot see very well but butterflies are staying in a tiny little group and everything else is called polymorph by the way, does anybody know in the audience what makes a butterfly a butterfly the criteria for butterflies is to find them so not really a lot of defining morphs even I did a corp morph because some people say when morphs are when they grow it's not true this morph is not true but defining morphs actually the criterion is that butterflies, when you look at their antennas they have a corp antenna that's a pretty reliable corp antenna that's the opposite also for different types of morphs when you look at a movie here is a sunset morph a beautiful picture from like this one and the movie is going to be made in 500 years and you're going to see a little bit more of the scale structure but we'll start to work again alright, let's start just for a second so here we have an entrant microscopy on the scales and the corp at first there was an attempt to represent the actual corp so we have a mix of the corp scales orange and red and in the background we also have black scales we've made a new background to enhance the corp of the of the scale let's continue we're moving to matter it's fantastic, isn't it we are approaching the green of the single scales and you can see this nanostructure here here we have the nanometer scale which means that it's about the size of the wavelength of light and here we have these little structures that are differentially absorbing different wavelengths in this case only the red light is refracted and also the red the wavelengths are absorbed which makes this scale red so I think this will show the connection between nanostructures and the the beautiful colors of the work as I'm also going to back up often whoa, whoa, whoa so based on this little system of color pixels the scales and you made amazing potential of color pixels and nanostructures you have here the big scale of the general diversity and I told you it's 12% of all known sequences in the world it's amazing resource for generating biodiversity and what is amazing about color flags is that just randomly if I can say it's the entire alphabet and the length you can't see that in tropical fishes so really a tremendous amount of diversity so I'm not interested in how do you generate this diversity you have to imagine that genes are working during the moment to establish centers of symmetry or axes and depending on the shapes but first I'm going to talk a little bit about function the function of patterns so window patterns can have a function in thermal regulation and it's darker, it's better for absorbing light reproduction so to seduce the lens and of course very important for survival so here we have a very large mode the ACAS mode and I don't wish you can spot any pattern that you scheduled so maybe not on this video but when you look at the picture people suggest that the tip of the wing looks like snakes yes so it's much overshadowed but you have to be open minded maybe for a world that looks like a snake first story industrial mechanism in petrodomorphs so this mode is in a wing lens there are mints of the peppered form that is completely camouflaged on lichens and the dark form that is more camouflaged on darkened trees during the main building in the square of revolution because of coal industry there was a huge tip of pollution that keeps the lichens on trees and the parts become covered with soaps and as a matter of fact there was a huge and sudden decline in the population of peppered forms and this mode to cover that was very well documented now the idea is getting clearer and the opposite trend is happening now we have a lot of 95% of peppered morphs and 5% of melanin morphs so this is a very nice example the effect of natural world selection and adaptation of the human scale happening very fast due to one type of general change so of course the function is came fresh from the world so this mode has huge icepots which is a classic strategy in the term crudelos because when it's really in its patterns it keeps it much bigger and it's so scary like it would be in an owl and a spider he's a more communicative bad leaf so I really like this one because you have this fruity effect which you have to imagine that this human surface is completely flat so this is flat so this is just an effect of kind of patterns and training shape and when you look at the so you can create the morphs it makes sense you can see what's the pattern for that and then you can imagine he's a lot from Europe but it's interesting to look at and that's a very common strategy for parents to provide an adaptive potential for parents is the military the military is a very important phenomenon it's where you have much like selection for all these standards securing that the morph is completely harmless and offensive it's not going to die for the team anyway but it really looks like the last but you can imagine that if you're a girl then you're looking something like this you're not going to try it so military is extremely common among birds a famous example is related to the monarchs the discords the unique chemical weapons here we have the birds of course you have to know that both butterflies here are feeding on things that are toxic so those butterflies are actually eating toxic compounds during their longer life so to understand how military is working let's look at this bird this bird has an idea it's never had a monarch before but you can see here it's injuring it's like pulling apart the nostrils but it takes a lot of control it's going to punch and the little emotions from kids are kicking and teach this bird never touch this again and this is awful never never again so if you look for the monarchs because over monarchs are going to protect it they don't want to have this bad but also any of the butterflies looking around like this is going to be protected this kind of thing is very welcome so a little bit about my oops it's about my own research I'm just seeing a group of butterflies called the Alpenus you can see the map of South America but on the left side and the right side you have two or three different species and each species is characterized by a lot of different types and everywhere you go the Neotropics, so South America or Central America you have the same morph so you have convergent evolution for the same islands because there's butterflies or toxic and really chemical anyways during my research I've been trying to do genetics so genetics is the science of defenses so I was trying to understand what was a genetic basis in DNA making these butterflies all different and for instance you can see there are a lot of differences in red colors like this guy has a red band and this one has little rays and by doing crosses I was able to find genes related to evolution of these islands this is some part of data because we don't know forget so here is the expression of the optics gene during the development in the cupa so here's the cupa this is before the treatments are deposited this is when the wind is a steel piece of white and different genetic tissue the gene optics is kicking through the cells that are going to make red for instance here it's marked with a fluorescent GFG you can see in the group the cells that are going to make red patterns and here it's marked with a messenger on one of the same gene so in every species of the best butterflies that you can use when you have red this gene this unity pattern has worked by thinking of the same gene over and over again which was interesting but here in the way I want to say the patterns are already here so that doesn't tell us how patterns are made out of DNA that much so we have to look a little bit at some important piece of theory called the French flag and all of that it's where I'm not looking at the cell by members of the workers on the French flag model this is of course speculated to make shapes during development you need molecules called morphogen morphogen is making shape etymology they are signaling molecules with concentration dependent effects so if you have a source here it's a cell if you have a source of signaling molecule morphogen is going to diffuse so decrease the concentration and then propitiate the morphogen to trigger concentration dependent effects so if I have concentration with that do you have concentration white, low concentration, no effect let's say to the background and still working on the economics I think I found the candidate I should probably pass on this resolution at this very low here we have expression of the genes expressing the middle of the stripes of orange plus black so this is like my putative French flag here this molecule is the signaling molecule called the Wraith very important in biologics for cancer and so on the little Wraith molecules are actually signaling molecules and that's a little yellow dot here so we do and they are received by other cells so it's Wraith cells are communicating it's very important and here is expression of the gene in the blood lining that is currently the secret spots so it's very early in development this is a wound that I extracted from a larva a wound from a larva so yeah I know so inside the larva there are little pieces of wounds that are broken but what is very surprising to me is that you already have a lot of paternal information present so the gene is expressed in blue here so dot one dot two fingers dot one dot two the fingers hidden here anyways I injected the drug that enhances this pathway so the patient is to make larger secret spots but what I get when injects even more drug is a spot alright I'm trying to so I would like to tell you a story about myself and how I became interested in the Wraith Islands so you have to imagine two years ago I was a biology student nothing is still interesting in the larvae wounds yet but there was a contest to write a short story about science in general so I decided to write a short story about the future where a company like Monsanto is making genetically modified butterflies and at the beginning I was very upset at this I was thinking well I'm going to make money I'm going to make butterflies I'm going to camp the junior lieutenant or starboard and then release the butterflies in the water it's pretty scary stuff but then it was a pretty political so I imagine another version of the story was the same company that was making GMO butterflies with famous art on it so you have to imagine in the short story butterflies give money easily or you can't sell it and the best part of the story is the butterflies are made free and they go out in nature and of course they are free so they are made they hybridize so you have hybrids of humans so so I talked to my teacher about it and he said I know you have to study butterflies this is your father I was telling him parents and I was actually wondering is it possible to make something like this so first we have the tools and second even if you have the tools is it possible to make whatever you want just like on stream with pixels I don't think it is also another question is is it okay to do it I think it is okay if you do it for knowledge increase of relationship with the humans so now I am able to do it to make different kinds and I am going to show you some groundbreaking data that comes from the recent piece of technology that actually comes from Lucifer you cannot see it it is called crystal people have heard of crystal so crystal is crystal is a bit it is a bit ultramarine it is a nature cancer I make all that matters it is crystal what is it it is a part of the molecule of cesars you can inject any organism you want and you can put the DNA very efficiently wherever you want and play around with genomes pretty scary but also pretty exciting so now we are just trying to do cut, poke and paste reactions with genomes if you imagine the genome as a one of that kind you can take a piece and poke and paste it somewhere else so I started to do that in both lines and I started to cut the genomes I will show you and here is some world premiere data for you guys you can see one not so well but this is a control butterfly injected and this is a mutant for winged hairs or morphogena was showing you and you can see the white band here as expanded actually because I removed this pattern here there is also a loss of complexity here so it would make a lot of sense I knew that I removed specific patterns and I removed this in your genome this is a version of this mutant it is half mutant it is a mutant on this side and a non mutant on this side this is just the pain I am more against it I would like to thank you for the night and the battle now but you see what you are for my guest thanks so much thank you maybe I will show you an expression pattern so like this like this so how do I make the correspondence between gene activity and the other patterns so it is over right here so you cannot see very well but you actually have little veins and these veins are reliable landmarks so I can position the patterns in the head and create it to whatever I see so three patterns I am not sure this is a pupa wing actually here and you cannot see here but this is like a pupa wing cut open and at this stage where this gene is active and is already making this already making this try you have to imagine it is completely white you have nothing else so you have a wing but it is much more like a wing because it is in the pupa but it is you don't have any pigments because it is in sign of patterns already it is all in the genes I will give it for you again thank you thank you I want to take my time to show you give yourself some booze there is going to be a spice live testing it is going to be crazy people on stage so here we will be right back we have 109 newbies in the house we have 9 virgins here raise your hands let's give it up for 109 newbies now you will not regret it you will not regret it thank you so I am going to introduce the last talk which you will be very excited about how many people have been to Yellowstone Yellowstone that place is insane where is the picture that I took it is really bad that is how you tell that I took it okay that is what is happening I can see in other people extremely powerful lenses job idea walk around the Yellowstone and steal people's lenses thousands of dollars in their hands it is really insane not that I regret that even though I just did so I went on some walks and one woman I was like I am going to walk here by myself which is the number one thing they recommend you not do is going to walk by yourself even though you are not going to get killed by a tree but still very scary the other thing I did not have was bear spray and if I had any bear spray with me it would be foolish so it is a terrifying hike so bear spray is a partner normal human makes a big miss so you can jet them from afar rather than right up close so who knows what is bear spray and the mace pepper capsaicin I swear I am not going to steal all of the next talk the capsaicin look at this beautiful structure awful lot like vanillin is capsaicin pepper so this stuff hurts getting around it is very spicy but there are cousins to this they are much more powerful they are like military grade and this is one of them the more common one is sea bar gas that structure down there on the right so I went to I went to grad school for chemistry I went to lab mates who was a real big character he had this really crazy reason that had nothing to do with tear gas for why he needed to make this you can't like royally buy it but he was like I'll just make it and it is not that hard to make but all right that is pretty cool cool and then we kind of ignored it for a while and he was making it until he kind of purified on this beautiful purification machine that not everyone is so lucky to have and so he purified and he was very careful but then later on I touched my face and I got some water on my face and my eyes started watering and then this happened I didn't really think much of it until my mother started crying I was like what is going on there and so she had been gasped but it turned out this stuff was like 10,000 times more powerful than Cacti's so it will fuck you up this is just like chemical grams or something really tiny but anyway that is my tear gas story and so chemicals are amazing I love chemistry but what we are about to have we have some folks John Bieber and Sean B is going to talk to you from Old Town we are going to talk to you about spices which contain a lot of beautiful chemistry but far fewer structures in this talk but please get up for John and Sean they are going to come up and talk to us they are going to hand you and I want you to get out of the area good evening how is everybody doing a little joke yeah a joke what is that pepper joke you know that pepper joke the pepper joke this is so spicy I'm up on the board this is a good thing unfortunately we didn't reverse that one yeah it didn't work out well you're going to have to flip that thing spices did you know that pepper was the king of spices how many people knew that pepper was the king of spices two people ok but you guys don't know it's already fun good so what is pepper green pepper well you could chill the pepper long pepper we got lots of pepper it has medium mountain pepper that's right we didn't want to do the forest gums thing with the pepper ok so so hopefully we'll answer the pepper in my pocket cause a little feedback ok we're good so look at the chips of pepper hopefully there have been any goodies to pepper ok so we're going to talk about pepper now what it means and what it may have meant in the times of your more than one type of pepper I think we mentioned that so we'll actually talk a little bit about that and we'll also talk a little bit about pepper etymology so the word pepper where it comes from and explore that in some different languages and we will be looking for about five or six volunteers the audience to keep in mind to taste these things we're going to taste some pepper corns and it'll be a blind taste and you'll have to guess what kind of pepper it is but it'll be after the talk so you'll be all really well informed so that shouldn't be a problem and then we'll have some questions I guess about three three so right pepper in the olden days how boys can you read that so let's go modern times when you think of pepper most people probably think of pepper as the table condiment it's like black and white flakes in a little jar that is little peppery right it's got a little heat, it's not quite there so you sprinkle everything and by the way back in the olden days even before the Romans the Greeks thought of pepper as a medicine and it was a cure-all that was something that could expel pain I'm not keeping pace with you I'm not serious okay so where's that you got it you got this this isn't how I'm going to screw it all over this page so we get to the time of the Romans basically pepper to the Romans was aspirin it was used to get rid of headaches and everything else and there are people that performed the first type of pepper was long pepper which we'll talk about I don't know if you're familiar with long pepper it is a different variety of pepper other types of pepper that we use in history is Chinese used something known as flower pepper have you ever heard of flower pepper a little bit long person sometimes you want to say long pepper yeah, okay another question in England there was a pepper something known as Malibueta pepper aka Greens of Paradise it was really popular we're going to talk about that too Christopher Columbus he was a real clever guy and traveling to India that's what he thought he was born and he ended up in Caribbean but he still thought he was in India and he had this pepper corns with him and he said hey have you guys ever seen anything like this before and the people there they were like oh yeah we got something like that and they got him some allspice berries so to this day in Spanish they call it pimento or they thought it was pimento the pepper okay so let's talk a little bit about what pepper might possibly be we have the pepper corns that's the one most people are familiar with and that would be the people name and species and that is black pepper corn white pepper corn, green pepper corn red pepper corn there's some also some the other papers they're in the family of people from S.C.A that's the long pepper that you were talking about earlier and then we're going to talk about some false packers some imposters so the people name they're all the same species they're all grown on the same vine they're the same fruit they're just hardest to do at different times imposters differently so black pepper, white pepper, green pepper, red pepper I don't know how many people have ever read two red pepper anybody? but they exist actually we have some it's wonderful we'll talk to you later about that so black pepper corns people name them as we said the people name them is native to India and they started to cultivate people in other parts of Southeast Asia going back for thousands of years and now to this day India is the second largest purchaser of pepper and the first world's largest producer of pepper is Vietnam Vietnam we remember I said that in the beginning okay good so the black pepper corns are harvested before they're ripe and then they're laid out in the sun and dried and it turns it black we're going to do green pepper corns now green pepper corns are kind of considered more of a modern innovation because they're based on the right and they're very quickly processed to kind of prevent fermentation in the black mean of the outside so they're usually the sort that were brined and then nowadays they dehydrate them or use a free strident and it maintains the green and also have a nice green flavor oh wait oh sorry is it kind of feeding back too much alright this one works a little bit better we're talking about green pepper corns and what they're bringing and what they taste like they taste green they taste hot and they're delicious white pepper they're fully ripened then they're soaked in a body of water for about a week until the outer layer, the periderm dissolves and they can just kind of shake it off and you have to put a lot of white core this results in a pepper that is milder and also has kind of how do you describe that flavor? somewhat barnyard-y I believe would be the best way it's kind of like if you were to farm and there was manure about it would be about on that level but of course it is I think the official chemical is called scatol, is that right? just checking in with Lee is that fact checker and then the elusive lean-out of this are red pepper corns those are picked very late when they're red on the vine and dried very quickly to kind of preserve that the sugars and what not that accumulated in the ripening of the fruit they smell like marshmallows they're sweet and hot let's talk about kissing cousins to the pepper corns as we mentioned before croubad was just the top there long pepper that very detailed photograph croubad where is my jam? Deeper croubad but also known as tail pepper or child pepper used in Indonesian cooking and it also used in jam like Hendricks, anybody had a Hendricks jam? yeah how would you describe the flavor John? very stringent noted whatsoever totally actual a little canter like kind of botanical long pepper so this is what the Romans were going crazy for deeper long used by the Romans let's imagine that other names on these pepper pepali anybody names that Ayurveda? pepali is paper this can be a little record there yeah I think we did okay so how would you describe the flavor? woody piney it's good for covering beany flavors so it was very popular in the villages when there was no refrigerate so now we are going to move into category of peppers that have not necessarily come by the name very honestly pink pepper corns anybody heard of those pink pepper corns? we have them are they hot? not so much it's actually a relative of a cashew yeah they were very popular in the 80s they were very popular in the 80s and so was when Nagel was very popular you know the artist Nagel people sprinkled pink pepper corn and everything so these things are also responsible for probably people's pepper mills breaking how many people have a pepper mill that doesn't work? anybody have a broken pepper mill? did you try grinding pink pepper corn in it? this is not scientific but it's 99% oil so it just gums up the works pink pepper corns in a pepper grinder Sean will come over and enforce that and I'll fix your pepper I'll fix your pepper grinder I have that problem I did the shop we'll fix it I don't know yet ok, I'll spice this is the thing Christopher Columbus encountered when he scrolled into the new world looks like pepper if you look at it physically it's round it's round you're obviously the same size as the pepper corn one thing you have to realize about early explorers is that they didn't really have a science background they had nothing but tales of dragons and serpents and giant birds spice characters were supposedly full of always mythical creatures that protected the spices and made them very expensive to get out of there when he maybe I can go the other way around the world and I'll get to the pepper first and even though all spices from the tree pepper grows on vines that are about 9 feet tall, maximum this is a full-fledged tree anybody going to Jamaica? no, nobody going to Jamaica but it's very critical to Jamaican cuisine Jamaican jerk being the wrong thing the flavor all spice maybe you can guess what flavors it has in it it's called all spice because it encompasses a bunch of different flavors deeply like clove, cinnamon and nutmeg so it's like the all-encompassing spice new spice because it came from the new world was the name for it Jamaica pepper because it came from Jamaica and people thought it was a pepper the Spanish thought it was pepper not that all related to pepper though chilies, yay chilies do they look like pepper corns? no, no they also are not that all related to pepper they are also from the Americas and we're kind of brought around the world there are a couple of competing theories on how they make their way around the world one is that the Spanish introduced them and some crypto-muslim guy went back to North Africa and introduced pepper chili pepper to the Morris Morris introduced it to the Ottomans and eventually made it through this spice chain to India and China but now we think of Thai food it's anonymous with chili peppers or even Szechuan cooking pepper is Indian India is the world's largest exporter of red pepper 500 years ago they didn't had no idea what that was so pepper why would it be pepper? because it's a little hot right? the heat connection Grands and Paras not sure Grands and Paras are West African spice they are actually kind of rarely used in the states these days they also have many names from the Luka pepper to Elgato pepper Indian grains it goes on and on and on because everybody has a local name for it but it's related to ginger and cardamom basically and it starts out with basically its own flavor it's somewhat akin to basically a mixture of ginger and cardamom but not it's a little more complicated than that and then a peppery heat will come on in the end I like using it on steak or basically any way you use black pepper great mill is very popular everyone's had Sam Adams their porter uses the grains and Paras once it goes into it but yeah basically if you're making a nice arcois that is a good ingredient for it do you have anything else to add to that John? it is delicious I'm going to add that I'll try some today or tomorrow maybe there was something you wanted to add about that what was it? the thing? I would get too excited I'm sorry it is it has some chemical in it that's somewhat akin to caffeine so it's a good thing to take if you're a little bit a little he or so or if you've had too many of these it packs you up during the day it's a good thing so next time you have a big lunch and you have to go back to work throw a few grains of pepper grains and Paras in your mind and get to work ok this is the fun part the linguistics here so talk about where the word pepper comes from comes from well we did this kind of opposite but it comes from the old English people and you see that all these European languages share the same root for pepper the people, the Latin so you recognize that one all comes from the ancient Greek pepperi which comes from Sanskrit in India the pepperi is also the root word for a lot of Afro-Asiatic for pepper in Arabic it's the Turkish beef so it's kind of interesting that basically any west of Persia I think you could read the root word for pepper but another language is it's not always the case for example in Spanish they use the word pimenta which actually has a Latin root but it comes from the Latin pigmentum to color Sanskrit Maricha and the Hindi right from Sanskrit is Kali March so Kali being black and March being pepper Kali March and then Chinese Hu Jiao foreigner pepper not talking about the band we're talking about people that work from don't stop believing pepper okay I'm tapping all over English peppermint because it's supposedly kind of pepperi chili pepper Szechuan pepper the expression pepper in your step do you know that one? pepper paps you up so here's Dr. Pepper so chili pepper then another language is interesting like in English we say pepper chili pepper comes from a word that's botanically unrelated it was kind of applied to it later well that happened in a lot of other languages in Arabic you have Philadelphia power so Philadelphia pepper power being hot Italian pepper you know the same word Latin root for people which we know it refers to the black pepper horn the Chinese La Jiao is hot pepper so using the root word for the native pepper of China and then adding La which is hot yeah and then also interesting enough India the home of the origin of pepper you go back like 5,000 years ago or something like that you find pepper growing in India so long history with pepper only about 500 years that they had chili peppers but they still had the chili pepper after their indigenous pepper interesting fact alright and I'm off to the Sichuan pepper how many of you have had Sichuan pepper? okay you know about that basically Sichuan pepper when you take it in your mouth will basically vibrate at a certain level it makes your mouth feel like an old battery on it it's a very interesting feeling if you've not had it before and when we do the pepper tasting someone is going to get that maybe it has a nice limiting flavor very like basically lime flavor it's used in conjunction usually with chili peppers in Sichuan cooking which is actually a thing that happened in the last 100 years there hasn't been much the chili peppers weren't indigenous to Sichuan cooking until the last 100 years so anyway oh no that's fine so basically it's used basically all across East Asia it's starting to be used more in like western cooking in general but it has a nice flavor it's good for anytime you need to have a citrus flavor in your cooking of those and then mala one of the roots of modern Sichuan cooking which ma means basically to ache or knownness and the la means spicy therefore that's mala but then it's just the basis in most Sichuan cooking you're going to have a lot more diversity in flavor and so forth so you'll have basically they have ideas of different things and so forth but this happens to be like the main thing that gets exported and if you are ever in the mood to actually try a very good reddition of this flavor combination put it on the spices 3 on 12th street awesome, awesome Sichuan cooking yeah there are a couple places in the city where I still like spices 3 does most of the Chinese they kind of love it it's not as good so on to you the pepper quiz we're volunteers volunteers come on come on put it on the way here directly over the stage it's a bit tall please come up so the name of the game is I'm going to hand them Shawna and I are going to hand them a pepper each just one and close their eyes so they can't see it but you don't have to close your eyes yet you can come up and you have to guess which it is you're eating and I promise that all these things are edible not edibles but edible everyone has to close their eyes good visual opinion we didn't put any evil peppers do you want to hand them well so I'm going to guess the pink one the pink pepper one put a lot more spice than I expected but I'm still going to go to 3's paradise air that was white pepper and what you were tasting was probably a little bit of that barbie or anything you were talking about well it came on kind of like a black but it didn't really taste I'm going to guess the red one it was ok what do you think it was it was really hot I guess maybe all sides describe the sensation in your mouth right now it's a little cool actually like my tongue is cool now after eating it that was the pepper who bet the tailed pepper everybody remember the tailed pepper it's good for making gin it's a long pepper for you to take on it was hot and I'm feeling burnt but it also takes being something a little hard and lonely grains of paradise grains of paradise you nailed it thanks for playing thanks for playing get some kind of hits cute I'm going to give it up for Janet Shelley thank you for coming to the crowd thank you for coming to the crowd that's awesome thank you so much for coming out for this let's see thank you so much for coming out for this most known name upcoming events big science and watch of the military and industrial complex that is at the Commonwealth so if you can make it definitely go with a very good student discount think about Nectun Beach the history and over version of Korean optical illusions which is very interesting talk about late marriage so be there