 Throughout your philosophic studies, you may consider passing by the philosophy of Brugdea Spinoza, but I beg you, read on, and you will find yourself a little greater than you were before. Let this video serve only as your introduction, and pass on eagerly to one of the supreme achievements of modern thought, the ethics. Spinoza was born in Amsterdam on November 24, 1632. The community in which he was brought up was unique in that it was comprised of Jewish immigrants that had fled from several European countries to avoid persecution from the Roman Catholic Church. The Jewish people, including our philosophers Portuguese ancestors, traveled from place to place until Dutch authorities granted them asylum, this as long as they didn't cause any scandal or allowing its members to cause ripples throughout society. It seems here that it was destined that Spinoza would belong to the world, and in 1656, at the age of just 24, Spinoza would be excommunicated from the synagogue and the world would be better for it. He would join no other creed and live out the rest of his life alone in the outskirts of Amsterdam. It was here, under the name Benedict, that he would reach out to every corner of the earth and throughout every generation. Our philosopher published only two books during his lifetime, and due to the threat from the Roman Catholic Church, these publications would be anonymous, lest he would suffer the same fate as the tenacious Giudano Bruno. His greatest work, The Ethics, would only appear after his premature death in 1677, approbation for his achievements would take even longer. In an attempt to maintain clarity, we will cover his work in the order in which he produced them. The Treatise on Religion in the State He begins by asserting that the language of the Bible is deliberately metaphorical and allegorical. This was in order to capture the imagination of the masses, since Scripture was written primarily for an entire people and secondarily for the whole human race. Consequently, its contents must necessarily be adapted as far as possible to the understanding of the masses. For this very same reason, the apostles resorted to miracle stories. After all, the people will always require religion phrased in imagery and haloed with superstition, and no matter how many are destroyed, innumerable others will spring up, anxious to occupy the throne. Spinoza would also pause in perplexity at the utter lack of compassion towards other creeds displayed by the Roman Catholic Church. I have often wondered, he said, that persons who make boast of professing the Christian religion, namely love, joy, peace, temperance, and charity to all men, should quarrel with such rank or animosity and display daily towards one another such bitter hatred. That this, rather than the virtues which they profess, is the readiness criteria of their faith. We see here why in an age dominated by the Roman Catholic Church, Spinoza would publish under an alias. Lastly, this work reveals to us, for the first time, Spinoza's pantheistic view of God. Allow me to pass by his second book, Principles of the Cartesian Philosophy, in order that we may focus on his more original third and fourth. After the many ills of life that he experienced, Spinoza set out on a quest to discover how he might go about attaining the faculty of enjoying throughout eternity continual supreme happiness. And in his third book, The Improvement of the Intellect, he reveals to us what he has found. To strive for the utmost development of our intellect, while abstaining from all things superfluous, this, Spinoza thought, would allow for the better understanding of its forces as they pertain to the order of nature. True happiness can only come to us through the pursuit of knowledge, and this pursuit would eventually lead us to the joy of understanding. Throughout this pursuit, he thought the philosopher must also remain a citizen. He lays out these rules of conduct to follow as we seek this elusive end. One, to speak in a manner comprehensible to the people, and to do for them all things that do not prevent us from attaining our ends. Two, to enjoy such pleasures as are necessary for the preservation of health. Three, to seek only enough money as is necessary for the maintenance of our life and health, and to comply with such customs as are not opposed to what we seek. Before delving into Spinoza's masterpiece, The Ethics, a question that must be explored is how do we know that our knowledge is knowledge? How, with our senses so often deceptive, do we determine truth? Spinoza suggests that, first, we must distinguish between the various forms of knowledge, and in Durant's The Story of Philosophy, he assists us in understanding each of them. First, there is hearsay knowledge, such as when I know the date of my birth. Second, there is knowledge that comes about by experience, such as when a physician knows a cure, not by any specific formulation of experimental tests, but by a general impression that it has usually worked. Third, immediate deduction or knowledge reached by reasoning, as when I conclude to the immensity of the sun from seeing that in the case of other objects, distance decreases the apparent size. Fourth, the highest form of knowledge comes by immediate deduction and direct perception, as when we see at once that six is the missing number in two times four equals two plus x, or as when we perceive that the whole is greater than the part. If you're familiar with the works of Immanuel Kant, then you should be familiar with a priori knowledge. This and that are one and the same. Now that we have, as Spinoza suggested, devised a means for improving and clarifying the intellect, we are prepared at last to explore The Ethics. When reading The Ethics, do not think that by running through it quickly, you will understand it fully. Every part depends on preceding parts. You will not understand any important section thoroughly until you have read and pondered the whole. Sadly, I will not be able to capture the whole of its grandeur in this video. What I hope is that I am able to expatiate on its most essential lessons and principles. In an attempt to make The Ethics comprehensible, Spinoza constructs it in geometrical form, but the result is a work of philosophy that is neither clear nor comprehensible. He acknowledges the apparent complexity of The Ethics, but consoles and reassures us, saying, doubtless, the reader will become confused and will recollect many things which will bring him to a standstill. Therefore, I pray him to proceed gently with me and form no judgment concerning these things until he shall have read all. Have patience with this video as well. I assure you we will come to its core principles soon enough, but first we should clarify bits of Spinoza's terminology, lest we should misunderstand his message. For the sake of this video, we will only define two important terms, substance and mode. Think of substance not as anything material as we would speak of marble as the substance of a statue, but instead substance as Spinoza understands it is that which eternally and unchangeably is, and of which everything else must be a transient form. These forms are what Spinoza refers to as modes. This is any individual thing or event, including you, your body and even your thoughts. He identifies substance with God in nature. I hold that God is the eminent and not the extraneous cause of all things. I say all is in God, all lives and moves in God. He does not mean to convey to his readers that God and nature are one and the same, but that like substance, God is the underlying reality in which the processes of nature occur. Natural law is but the eternal commandments of God. This means, to the Catholic Church's abhorrence, that God was not some omnipresent man ordering countless persecutions, but was instead only nature and its laws. He would also go on to address our timeless problem of evil. Spinoza asserted that philosophers often make the mistake of attempting to reconcile evil with an all-powerful and completely good God. Take Leibniz best of all possible worlds as an example. Good and evil are but anthropocentric delusions, subjective assertions. For the spider to live, the fly has to die. For the fly to live, the spider must starve. Whenever, then, anything in nature seems to us ridiculous, absurd or evil, it is because we have but a partial knowledge of things, and are in the main ignorant of the order and coherence of nature as a whole. And because we want everything to be arranged according to the dictates of our own reason. Although, in fact, what our reason pronounces is bad is not bad as regards to the order and laws of universal nature, but only as regards to the laws of our own nature taken separately. What of Spinoza's position on free will? I will let him tell you in his own words. There is in the mind no absolute or free will, but the mind is determined and willing this or that by a cause which is determined in its turn by another cause, in this by another, and so on to infinity. We only think that we are free because we are conscious of our desires, but Spinoza informs us that most are ignorant of the causes that lead us to these desires. The Ethic of Spinoza Of all the profound moral philosophies that populate history, there are but three that stand predominant, that of Buddha and Jesus, that of Machiavelli and Nietzsche, and that of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. As Durant so accurately said, it is the distinction of Spinoza that his ethic unconsciously reconciles these apparently hostile philosophies, weaves them into a harmonious unity, and gives us in consequence a system of morals which is the supreme achievement of modern thought. In his ethic, happiness is the ultimate goal, the apogee of all human conduct. He would define happiness very simply as the presence of pleasure in the absence of pain. To him, pleasure and pain are merely transitions, pain being one's transition from a greater state of perfection to a lesser, and pleasure being the antithesis of pain. He would equate power with virtue and thought joy only comes when our power is increased. The more a man can preserve his being and seek what is useful to him, the greater is his virtue. In the same sense, emotions are only good or bad insofar as they positively or negatively impact our power, so he stands behind a justifiable egoism and lays it down as his foundation on which virtue is built. He has no use for humility or remorse, but admires monesty. Unjustifiable pride is also something Spinoza rejects, and for society to overcome in shortcomings, the individuals that populate it must conquer these undesirable emotions. To do this we must endeavor to understand. Passion should come secondary to reason. Instincts are magnificent as a driving force, but dangerous as guides. When we decide then to adopt a deterministic philosophic model, we also adopt the fortitude to bear up under any circumstance, to recognize the necessity of all things and to see them as not harmful nor beneficial. As Nietzsche would go on to say, that which is necessary does not offend me, and more fatih is the core of my nature. Spinoza and Religion Spinoza's view on religion and immortality are best summarized here with this epilogue. Our mind insofar as it understands is an external mode of thinking, which is determined by another mode of thinking, and this one again by another, and so on to infinity, so that they all constitute at the same time the eternal and infinite intellect of God. And with this we should continue on to his fourth and final work, Traktates politicus, the political treatise. While this work would remain unfinished due to his untimely death, it would nonetheless bring clarity to his political views. Men are not born for citizenship, but must be made for it. This is to say that before civilizations were formed, individuals lived apart without conceptions of right and wrong. Might was right. It is only through accepted organization that the might of the individual becomes the might of the state. The individual, seeing that survival is much more of a guarantee with mutual aid, concedes his own individual power to the power of the whole. From here arises the development of morality and conscience, since these things are necessary for the survival of the whole. Let Spinoza explain, in his own words, the necessity of social organization. The last end of the state is not to dominate men nor to restrain them by fear, rather it is so to free each man from fear that he may live and act with full security and without injury to himself or his neighbor. The end of the state, I repeat, is not to make rational beings into brute beast and machines. It is to enable their bodies and their minds to function safely. It is to lead men to live by and exercise a free reason, that they may not waste their strength and hatred, anger, and guile, nor act unfairly toward one another. Thus, the end of the state is really liberty. Freedom of thought and freedom of speech are essential to maintaining the stability of the state. It is for this reason that Spinoza expressed a preference for democracy. In this form of governance, everyone submits to the control of authority over his actions, but not over his judgment and reason, i.e., seeing that all men cannot think alike, the voice of the majority has the force of law. Democracy does, however, have its troubles. For instance, its propensity for electing demagogues into office. The only remedy, Spinoza thought, was to limit office to those trained for the cause. For some time after his death, the world would sadly hold him and ill-repute. This was until the German writer Lesing restored his name to its rightful place among the geniuses of history. All those who endeavor to follow the philosophic path should know him. It was Hegel who declared that, to be a philosopher, one must first be a Spinozist. I can only say that Hegel is right, and that I too implore whoever hears this to discover our gentle philosopher. It would be near and possible to fit so much matter into this video lest I kept you here another hour. I hope, however, that I was able to adequately capture the essence of his work. If you enjoyed this video or found it helpful in any way, consider subscribing and turning on the notification bell for more on Eastern and Western philosophy. And as always, thank you for talking philosophy with me. Until next time.