 Assalamu alaikum viewers, welcome to virtual university, now if you remember in the last lesson we looked at the three structural parts of a paragraph. In addition you will learn that a good paragraph has the elements of unity and coherence. We will first look at unity in a paragraph, how unity is created in a paragraph. A good paragraph has unity that is that each paragraph is about one main idea, only one main idea is discussed. Unity again has two parts. Every supporting sentence in the paragraph must be directly related to the main idea, this is the first part of unity. Remember do not include information which is not directly supporting the topic sentence, that is do not include irrelevant material, do not talk about irrelevant things. Example if your paragraph is about the advantages of foreign travel, discuss only that, do not discuss travelling locally, the advantages of travelling locally because your topic was advantages of foreign travel. To make it better discuss only one advantage in each paragraph, however sometimes it is possible to discuss two or three aspects of the same idea in one paragraph, but only if they are closely related to each other, mind you the emphasis is on there being closely related to one another. The second part of unity is that every supporting sentence must directly explain or prove the main idea which is expressed in the topic sentence. Students often write supporting sentences that are way of the topic, but if you go on to write three or four sentences on inflation and the difficulty of educating three or four children of a family, then you are wide off the mark, wide off the topic and your paragraph will lack unity. So, the unity of a paragraph is determined by the terms of the topic sentence, your topic sentence sets the terms, the key terms of the paragraph, otherwise if your sentences they must relate to the key terms, otherwise it must be left out. Look at the following paragraph and see which sentence does not contribute to a unified effect. Now, I am just giving you practice, you look at paragraphs and notice once you begin to spot a sentence that is not part of the paragraph, you will realize and I hope you will go on when you write yourself, not to write such sentences. In the following paragraphs, there are sentences which do not contribute to a unified effect. The first one is about playing tennis, playing tennis keeps my mother fit. The first sentence says running around the courts keeps her muscles toned up and gives them the flexibility of a teenager, fine. The second sentence says we still have the cup she won for finishing first in the one mile race in her college annual sports. Number three, the sentence says serving especially gives her a sense of balance and sentence number four says even at the age of 50 my mother continues to play tennis and she plays it well. Now notice out of those four sentences, there is one sentence which is a bit off the mark. It does not contribute to a unified effect, it does not contribute to giving the paragraph a unified effect and which sentence would that be? That would be sentence number two. Sentence number one running around the courts, sentence number three is about serving and sentence number four says that even at this age she plays tennis and she plays it well. So those three sentences are more or less they go together but sentence number two which talks about the cup that she won when she was in her college days that has nothing to do with mother playing tennis well. I hope you have got the idea that your sentences must contribute to towards the unity of the paragraph. Let us look at another example. In this paragraph notice how the details are unified they are all about the same subject they are all about the same topic of the paragraph. Now in the first example that you had about tennis there was one sentence that was not in place in this example you will notice that one sentence after another builds up the unity of the paragraph I will read it out for you. Hamid was a big bouncy guileless man who slapped you in the back whenever he met you. He loved to crack jokes and would poke you in the ribs to make sure you got the point of his jokes. He had a passion for food and a passion for ideas. Now take the constitution for instance I cannot believe that we have made a mess of it there is only one way to come out of this practical mess. He would continue examining one idea after another his strong protruding teeth would glisten from far away as he sat in the midst of friends eating and discussing. Now how do you determine that this is a unified paragraph notice that the specific terms of the subject or the topic and the specific terms of the comment about the subject Hamid is the subject and it is obvious that only concrete explanations would maintain unity. The first sentence says that Hamid is a big bouncy guileless man right and the sentences that follow they pack in one example after another and unity would be maintained only by giving providing concrete explanations and not just any vague comment about him. Now notice that comment is Hamid is a subject the comment on Hamid is that he is a big bouncy guileless guileless means somebody who is straight forward and then you have got another comment on him that he has a passion for food and a passion for ideas and notice that the paragraph talks about his passion for food and it talks about his passion for ideas and how he continues talking and eating in the midst of friends. So that would be considered a unified paragraph. Now there is another example here is another example and you notice note the details that have been selected to develop the topic. And these details are more specific more concrete than the topic idea. Now one thing you must remember that you must not lengthen paragraphs by throwing in more generalities this is a very interesting paragraph. Notice that in this paragraph there is a sentence which is not concrete and notice that it is the same idea that is repeated. The young Pakistani woman has become a puppet in the hands of fashion gurus. She does everything they tell her to do. She raises hemlines when they give her the nod. They are lowered when a new look is needed to raise sales and at their suggestion she wears bright colors and when they propose dull colors she takes to wearing drab colors. Now in that paragraph it is sentence number two which merely repeats what the topic sentence says. The topic sentence says that the young Pakistani woman is a puppet in the hands of the fashion gurus. Sentence number two says that she does whatever they tell her to do which is a repeat of what is said in the first one. You not only repeat the same statement in different but equally general words. Now in the examples that you have seen so far all the details have been equal to one another. Now this does not happen all the time. The details of a paragraph may have other logical relationships to each other. There may be subdivisions and further subdivisions of subdivisions. For example if you are asked to write on the characteristics of a good Pakistani citizen you may break down those characteristics into three subdivisions. You could say awareness, you could say knowledge and action. These are three characteristics. Now these three characteristics can be further broken down and you may provide concrete examples, concrete details of all or some of the subdivisions and it need not be in the same quantity for each. Now have you got what I said? I said that when you are writing you can break down at times, subdivide it and those major divisions can be further broken down. The breakdown need not be the same for each major division. Look at this topic characteristics of a good Pakistani citizen and I said that we can break it down three major characteristics. Number one is awareness and you can break it down into that by awareness you mean his awareness of what is happening in the world around him at the local level, at the national level and at the international level. You have broken down the characteristic of awareness into further subdivisions. In the same way a good Pakistani citizen you would expect him to have knowledge, knowledge of what? Knowledge of his basic human rights, knowledge of his constitutional rights. So you notice that over there the major division was further subdivided into two and for the third one action we have participation in community work. You would expect a good Pakistani citizen to participate in community work. You would expect him to participate in political work, political activity said by casting votes by taking part in campaigns right. Now that was one way of breaking down topics into divisions and further subdivisions. A good effective paragraph should be long enough to clinch its point. Now I am talking about the length and the type of paragraph. Your paragraph as I said it should be just long enough that long enough to clinch the point it is trying to make. Now how can that come about will depend on the topic and the purpose or the audience who are going to read what you are writing right. It will depend on the topic and the audience who is going to read the writing. For instance a strong argumentative position might require proof and you will have to see if the terms of the topic have been discussed. It varies from purpose to purpose. Let us have some practice you will have topic sentences and you look at the key terms the topic sentence sets out the key terms. Look at the topic sentence and its key terms then decide which detail would not be related to the key term. The topic sentence is folk songs are popular because of their greater realism. Folk songs are popular because of their greater realism. Now the topic is folk songs but what are the key terms. The key terms are popular and greater realism and the details decide which detail would not be related to the key terms and you have got four choices. This participation A, B honesty about love we are talking about folk songs and folk songs are generally people participate in them spontaneously and the love that they discuss there is somehow a genuineness about it. Point number three is that they are they deal with very powerful down to earth emotions and if you add a detail such as how folk songs are involved with ecology now would that be appropriate detail no over there any talk about involvement with ecology. Of course you can make a far fetched illusion to it and say that folk singers are related to the soil and no in fact detail A B and C can be used to talk about the topic sentence to expand the topic sentence. Let us look at another one. You have a sentence which says inflation has affected a varied cross section of the public. Inflation has affected a varied cross section of the public. The topic sentence the topic is inflation and the key terms are affected and cross section cross section of the public and the details that you would that you would normally have would be that you talk about people with fixed incomes you talk about inflation affecting petty shop owners you talk about medicines inflation affecting medicine and hospital charges how these things have gone up. But would your paragraph need sentences about overcrowded hospitals and conditions in hospitals the overcrowded conditions. Then detail D detail number D is would be inappropriate it would not hammer in the point that A B C would do. Let us look at another one these are all samples to make you realize that when you write a paragraph your paragraph has to be a united whole now look at the topic sentence over here and see the details that are given you which detail would not be unified with the regard to the key terms of the topic sentence. The topic sentence is the pollution problem has increased in great proportions. The topic sentence is the pollution problem and the key term is increased your paragraph could have sentences about cars and buses on city streets you could talk about deforestation you could talk about polluted rivers. But if you have a paragraph if one of the details that you include in the paragraph is about the competition of imported vehicles between the different companies the car companies that sell their cars in Pakistan would that be adding to the unity of the paragraph no that is that would be totally irrelevant. Now let us look at another example it is a paragraph on historical novels and you have three major details which detail would not be considered a subdivision one appeal to patriotic feelings B historical novels are usually based on fictitious events C historical novels usually present events in a very simplified way and D historical novels glorify war now out of these four which detail is not a subdivision in the development of a paragraph on historical novels which one I would consider number D that it does not help in the development of a paragraph on historical novels. Let us look at another example for example you were asked if you are asked to write a paragraph on Urdu films which three details would be grouped under a major subdivision about the qualities of a hero of the hero in a Pakistani film. Now the qualities are A he can sing and dance B he emerges from fights without a scratch C he can jump from great heights and D that Urdu films have monotonous plots out of those four details there is one which three details would be grouped under a major subdivision it would be A B and C number D would not come under the qualities of the hero let us look at another example now over here you are asked to write three sentences that develop the following topic sentence the sentences modern technology has helped the housewife modern technology has helped the housewife that is the sentence the key terms are helped and housewife I will just give you a few hints you can write them down one hint would be that modern technology some of the gadgets they help they in saving time this saving labor saving effort look at all the gadgets in the modern kitchen in the same way if you were to include a sentence about modern gadgets like the washing machine it makes your washing efficient more easier and cleaner number three you can have a sentence about the fridge the modern fridge it saves housewives who are working women they can cook for they can cook a number of meals and store them in the fridge so this is just to give you practice that if you had this sentence modern technology helps has helped the housewife you would write three sentences of four sentences of five sentences in a paragraph all talking about the help that modern gadgets provide the housewife and I have given you examples right now up till now we were looking at the unity of a paragraph now we are going to look at coherence what is it that makes a good paragraph go here now coherence means to hold together now coherence in writing refers to the movement from one sentence to another to the next one and this movement must be smooth and it must be logical in the same way we are while we are talking about the paragraph in the same way in a longer piece of writing say an essay the movement from one paragraph to another must be smooth and logical in other words it means that there should not be sudden jumps sudden jumps in thought each sentence should flow smoothly into the next now coherence can be achieved in two ways one by using transition transition signals to show how one idea is related to the next and by arranging sentences in a logical order now let us talk about transitional transition signals I am sure you will say that we have had a lot of transition signals in our earlier lessons true we did but that was from the perspective of reading now we will we are now we are going to look at transition transition signals from the perspective of writing some writers think of transition signals as similar to roadside signs traffic signs which tell the reader which tell the reader the direction he or she has to take in other words they tell the reader when the writer is taking a similar route and it is words like similar more over furthermore in addition this these are signals for the reader to know that the writer is taking the same route and when the writer takes the opposite direction he uses he or she will use words like on the other hand however in contrast these are all signals for the reader or when he is giving examples he will give you signals like for example for instance and the reader knows that the writer is giving examples or he may use a phrase like as a result or he may use a phrase like in conclusion these are all signals for the reader now by using transition words you guide your reader and you make it easier for him or her to follow the writer's ideas it is transition words that give coherence to your paragraph let me repeat again it is transition words that give coherence to your paragraph now we will have a quick practice you look at two paragraphs and both the paragraph both the paragraphs give the same idea the same information yet one is easier to follow than the other because of the use of transition signals paragraph one I will read it out for you and you notice the difference students who come to college from high school find that at first they have a few problems their college is usually much bigger than their high school the new first year student often does not know any of the students of the higher classes these students are not always friendly to him or to her they play tricks on him or her or tease him or her before he or she was one of the biggest students in his or her in his or her school now he or she is one of the smallest another problem is that he or she is no has no longer his or her classroom he or she has to go to a different classroom for every subject the unfortunate student has to carry all his things with him or with her he or she is not used to this our first year student does not have a class teacher either instead of one teacher whom he or she knows well he or she has six or seven teachers whom he hardly knows at all the boy or girl starting college often finds it finds it rather strange at first now in this paragraph I wonder if you noticed let us read the second paragraph and then you yourself will notice the difference who come into college from high school find that at first they have a few problems the main problem is that their college is much bigger than their high school another thing is that the new first year student often does not know any of the students of the higher classes as well these students are not always friendly to him sometimes they play tricks on him or tease him another change is that before he or she was one of the bigger students in his or her school now he or she is one of the smallest yet another problem is that he or she is no longer he or she no longer has his or her classroom now he or she has to go to a different classroom for every subject and the unfortunate student has to carry all his things with him he is he or she is not used to this moreover our first year student does not have a class teacher either instead of one teacher whom he knows well he or she has six or seven teachers whom he hardly knows at all there is no doubt that the boy or girl starting college often finds it rather strange at first now I am sure you noticed the smoothness of the second paragraph if you look at that paragraph again you will yourself notice it each transition signal has a special meaning each one shows how the following sentence relates to the preceding one the sentence that has gone before it now it does not mean that you use a transitional signal in front of every sentence do you get my point it does not mean that you start every sentence with the transitional signal that would be just as confusing as having too few transitional signals so good writing requires that you use enough transitional signals to make the relationship the relationships among your ideas clear let us have a short practice of choosing transitional signals now we will have a couple of paragraphs and you have to choose the transition signal which is appropriate in that situation number one a recent article in the herald suggested ways to reduce inflation the article suggested that the prime minister reduce the central budget dash blank it suggested that the government reduce central provincial and local taxes which transition signal should be used in the blank space over there it has to be furthermore number two the writer said that the causes of inflation were easy to find dash blank the cure for inflation was not easy to prescribe which signal is required over there to make it smooth reading and the signal the word would be however number three in physics the weight of an object is the gravitational force with which the earth attracts it dash blank if a man weighs 150 pounds this means that the earth pulls him down with the force of 150 pounds which transition signal is required over there you can use for example right now that was one way of using of achieving coherence you can achieve coherence in a paragraph by using transition signals right now the other way the second way of achieving coherence in a paragraph is by arranging the sentences in some kind of logical order now as there are different kinds of logical relationships just as there are different kinds of logical relationships there are different ways of organizing ideas and sentences in a paragraph your choice of one kind of logical order over another will depend on the topic and the purpose of your writing it is possible to combine two or more different logical orders in the same paragraph and the two most common ways of logical order in the English way of writing are chronological and order of importance the word chronological is related to the word time chronological order therefore is a way of organizing the ideas in a paragraph in the order of their occurrence in time you could use this order of organization for something as simple as a recipe and you could use it for something as complex as a history as writing the history of any political movement however chronological order is not just used for historical events it is also used for explaining processes and procedures business science and engineering concerns a paragraph that explains how to solve a problem perform an experiment these are known as process or how to paragraphs a paragraph that tells you how to do a thing how to polish a shoes how to polish a car right you can write a paragraph how to mix this gas with this gas right now there are two important points that you have to keep in mind when you are writing a good chronological paragraph number one discuss the events all the steps in a process in the order in which they take place what comes first must be described first what comes next must be described next what comes after that must be described you have to keep that order number two use chronological transitional signals words like first next after then in 1940 1960 right you will not talk about 1960 first and then talk about 1940 you will keep the chronological order intact now look at two paragraphs the following two paragraphs they are organized according to time number one the first paragraph is the history of computers I will read it out for you the first generation of computers which used vacuum tubes came out in 1950 Univac one is an example of these computers which could perform thousands of calculations per second in 1960 the second generation of computers was developed and these could perform work ten times faster than their predecessor second generation computers were smaller faster and more dependable than first generation computers the third generation computers appeared on the market in 1965 right now if you look at that paragraph notice that its words like the first generation then you got the second generation then you got the third generation you got came out in 1950 then you got in 1960 and then you got in 1965 the chronological order has been maintained in that paragraph now this is another paragraph for you and this is a how to paragraph a paragraph that explains to you how to make something and this is how to make carrot pudding if you want to cook something that is delicious and quick quick to make try this recipe for carrot pudding first scrape the carrots one kilo and then grate them boil milk one kilo and add the grated carrots let them boil add one cup of sugar next beat one egg thoroughly pour the beaten egg into the boiling milk and carrots stir the mixture add two tablespoons of finely grated coconut mix well cook till mixture becomes thick turn off the gas when the mixture cools pour it into a dish notice in that paragraph the words first then next when right all related with steps all right let us move on now the topic sentence of a chronological paragraph in some way indicates the time order in the paragraph on computers phrases such as 1950 1960 was developed they give the reader a hint that this is a chronological paragraph in a process paragraph such as the one on how to make carrot pudding the process to be described is named in the topic sentence. Now, here is a quick exercise check with a tick mark those sentence those sentences that suggest a chronological paragraph will follow right and circle the word or words that indicate the chronological order the first one is done for you look at this sentence in the past thirty five years developments in the field of electronics have revolutionized the computer industry. Now, in that example it is the topic sentence in the past thirty five years that is the topic and then it talks about developments look at the next two three four sentences the worst day in my life was the day I left my family and my friends to come to Canada it is the day I left my family next one the life cycle of the Pacific salmon is one of nature's most fascinating phenomena and it is the word the life cycle gold is prize for two important characteristics it is gold and the two characteristics all right. Now, the other way of organizing a paragraph is to organize ideas in order of their importance this is done in two ways you can discuss the most important idea first the most important point first and work down to the least important point or you can begin with the least important point and end your paragraph with the most important the way you choose will depend on your topic and on your purpose of writing both ways can be effective. Now, suppose you were asked to write about two important influences on your life besides your family and you decide to write about a teacher who had so much influence on you that it somehow the influence change here again you would discuss the two influences in the order of importance how strongly each affected you again as with chronological order it is important to use transition signals to guide your reader from one point to the next now look at the two model paragraphs notice how they are organized the first paragraph it is a model paragraph as a child my favorite food was salted peanuts and I never seem to have to get enough every time I stepped out of the house I would think of some excuse to visit the corner shop which sold small packets of salted peanuts I even devised elaborate techniques for eating the stuff some I would eat from the from beginning to end starting at the top of the packet and ending at the salty base others I would throw casually into the air letting them land in my wide open mouths now the next paragraph that again is a model paragraph for more time more than 75 years my father functioned like a well oiled machine no matter what the time of the year what the weather he got up at 4 a.m. while it was still dark and went out for a long brisk walk with his dog he came back at 7 and went to work at exactly 7 30 but then one day nobody knows why the machine came to a halt my father just lay in bed it did not matter it did not matter anymore what time it was he just did not care his connections with the world seem to have snapped the lights seem to have gone out my father had decided not to live anymore and that was it now for homework you got two groups of paragraphs choose from group A and one from choose I am sorry and choose one from from group B write a paragraph on any topic that you would like to and remember to use transitional signals one is group A the paragraph will be on the order of importance and you will write on why it is important either to learn English to stop smoking or to reduce pollution any one of them and group B in chronological order you can write upon a typical day in your life a typical the happiest day in your life or the unhappiest day of my life so with that we come to the end of today's lesson Allah Hafiz see you next time.