 chapter 38 part 2 of history of philosophy this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org recording by Florence history of philosophy by William Turner chapter 38 St. Thomas of Aquinn arguing from the same empirical principles principles namely which are founded on a study of the operations of the mind St. Thomas concludes that the soul is created if the soul in its intellectual acts rises above the conditions of matter it is impossible that the soul could be produced by material forces matter cannot produce an immaterial effect for the same reason because of its immateriality the soul cannot by any agency be evolved out of the potency of matter it follows that it is created at the moment of creation the soul is infused into the body creando infidito et infuendendo creato is a scholastic formula the soul is naturally destined for the body there is consequently no reason why it should exist before its union with the body as Plato taught it will be perceived that St. Thomas a system of rational psychology is based on experience the central doctrine of this system substantial union of soul and body in man is inferred from the facts of consciousness revealing to us the oneness of the vital principle from which proceed not merely our intellectual actions but also every other function of the living organism it is from the facts of consciousness that the nature of the idea is determined and from the universality and necessity of the idea are deduced in turn the immateriality and immortality of the soul as well as the creationist hypothesis of the origin of the soul the method of St. Thomas's psychology is therefore empirical and not as is too frequently alleged a priori it is true that St. Thomas appeals to such maxims and formulas as a Gary secretary essay but it should be remembered that such formulas are not a priori principles or premises arbitrarily assumed they are conclusions established by empirical or rational investigation and as such are perfectly legitimate principles of rational psychology in the same way as the law of the conservation of energy the law of the division of physiological labor or any other generalization inductively established has its legitimate application in physics or biology Genesis of knowledge St. Thomas teaches that there are no innate ideas that the mind is at first a tabular razor pure potency in the intellectual order just as materia prima is pure potency in the physical order or knowledge begins with sense knowledge knee hill est intellect to quad prius non fiori it in sense soo thus for example he says David key and a eliquid sensei David key and a aurum quite apprehended into second and illum sensei secret kikus natus nullum protest a berry not itium day coloribus the intellect it is true knows itself by its own act but the act of the intellect presupposes the previous exercise of the senses St. Thomas does not discuss in detail the nature of sensation nor the manner and mechanism of the process of sense perception he simply describes in a general way the conditions of sense knowledge and the action of the object on the senses sensation he teaches is the act by which the object produces a modification in the animated organism the senses therefore are purely passive or at most reactive they do not produce anything they neither make the object nor do they as modern theories of our perception maintain group together the qualities of the object and unify them the object acts the senses react senses no nest virtus activa set passiva senses autumn comparato add sensible a sicker pations add agents a o quad sensibly transmute art at sensum the reaction is described as follows sentiri quantum ad ipsum receptionem specchi sensibilis nominate passio name said quantum adactum consequentum ipsum sensum perfectum perspecchium nominate operatio name confining our attention to the passive phase of sensation we next inquire what is the nature of the change produced by the object in the organism it is neither holy material nor holy immaterial it is a vital change it is not entirely material because color for example is not received in the eye in such a way as to color the eye neither is the change purely immaterial because we are speaking of the modification of material organs by material qualities when therefore st. thomas uses the phrase immutato spiritualis to designate the change produced in the organs of sense perception he uses it as opposed to immutato naturalis or holy material change this spiritual change is the famous specchi sensibilis which is consequently nothing but a passio or effectio of the peripheral sense organs a mode of motion and by no means a substantial entity now according to a metaphysical principle well known to st. thomas as a peripatetic formula actio and passio are but two phases of the same reality like the concave and the convex of the same curve the action of the object and the modification produced by it in the sense or one in the same phenomenon and the specchi sensibilis may therefore be defined as the physical determinant of sensation in as much as it is received in the animated organism the specchi sensibilis is not a miniature object neither is it something which we first perceive in sensation and by means of which we are led to perceive the object it is merely the vital phase of the stimulative action of the external object a medium of communication between object and subject but not a medium in the order of knowledge for in normal conditions it does not rise into direct consciousness at all the first thing perceived being the object itself it is called as specchies because by means of it in the sense just explained the object is perceived this detailed explanation of the tomistic doctrine of specchi sensibilis is rendered necessary by the persistent misrepresentation of that theory on the part of many writers on scholastic psychology the misunderstanding is perhaps to be explained by the fact that st. thomas has little to say about the specchi sensibilis in the Sumer Theologica he merely points out the difference between the Aristotleian doctrine of specchies and the atomistic doctrine of effluxes and adds that the specchies is a mode of motion in what this operatio this mode of motion or as we should call it vibration consists returning now to the study of the active phase of the process of sensation we find that according to st. thomas the specchies is first impressed on the sense specchies impressa then consciousness responds and by the actus consequence impressionem writes out so to speak representation of the object called the specchies expressa sensation in the passive phase is not knowledge for there is no knowledge without consciousness it is only in the active phase that sensation becomes knowledge properly so-called but how do we rise from sense knowledge to intellectual knowledge how do we derive from the world of material things universal and immaterial which is the object of pure thought st. thomas recalls in his answer to this question the Aristotleian distinction between active and passive intellect these he maintains are two faculties not one and the same power viewed under two different aspects the object as it presents itself to the senses is indeed contingent and singular but hidden beneath the surface qualities which give to the object is individuality and contingency is the unalterable nature or essence which is universal and necessary the active intellect by virtue of its illuminative power separates what is contingent and particular from what is necessary and universal in the object in this way causing the universal and necessary element in the object to stand forth in the clear light of its own intelligibility and rendering actually intelligible what was only potentially intelligible before the actually intelligible element acts upon the passive or receptive intellect in the same way as color acts upon the eye producing the specchies intelligibilis impressa on being received into intellectual consciousness this impression becomes the intellectual expression of the object in the mind the mental image of the object specie is intelligibilis expressa fair bum mentis the idea which results from the abstractive process has a twofold aspect and typically considered it is an accident or quality of the mind in which it is representatively considered it is an image or representation of the object functioning not as a medium in which we see the object for that would be to open the door to subjectivism but as a medium by which the object acts on our consciousness the analogy between the function of the specie is intelligibilis and that of the specie sensibilis is perfect with regard to the chronological order of the genesis of our ideas st. Thomas holds that the first idea which the human mind acquires is the idea or notion of being by the notion of being we must not understand a definite concept such as the idea of being which is the object of metaphysical analysis but a vague concept of reality more aptly expressed by the word thing than by the word being st. Thomas adopts Avicenna's formula quad-premium-caded in intellectu estens it is only after a long process of training that the mind by reflecting on its own acts comes to know itself the senses the natural windows of the soul are open on the side which looks out on the external world consequently our first knowledge is sense knowledge and the first idea which we glean from sense knowledge is naturally the most imperfect that is the vaguest and least definite of notions the idea of being ontologists have endeavored to cite the authority of st. Thomas in favor of their doctrine that one God is the first object of our knowledge and two in this knowledge of God we know all things else st. Thomas it need hardly be said is far from confounding with the idea of God the idea of being in general which is the first object of knowledge and the constant substratum and indefinite resident in all our processes ideation he is careful to keep apart the concept of being and the concept of God for the former is merely an abstraction of the mind existing as such nowhere except in the mind and the latter is the representation of the first and greatest reality when therefore he says entis intelectus include itto in omnibus quai cumque quiz apprehended he speaking of the idea of being which is the substratum of all our ideational processes and when he says that we see all things in God he explains his meaning as follows omnia dickimur in day of a dairy et secumdom ipsum omnia judicari in quantum pair particular pati o name sui luminous omnia cognisimus et di judicarmus circuit etium omnia sensibilia dickimur vidari et judicari in sole it est perlumen solis circuit ego at vividum a liquid sensibility non is necker say quad vidiato substantial solis ita ad vivendum a liquid intelligibitare non est necasarium quad vidiato a sentia day the emotions are treated by saint thomas under the name passiones by which word following st augustin he translates the greek word pathway it may seem strange to us that schoolmen should treat of the emotions in connection with appetite and will refusing apparently to recognize the importance of the emotions as mental states deserving to be coordinated with cognitive and volitional states in a classification of mental phenomena still when we examine the nature of the emotions we shall realize that they are intimately connected with volitional or appetitive states that all emotion is in a certain sense a response to good or evil perceived st. thomas defines passion in its broader sense as the change from a state to its contrary or more strictly from a more perfect to a less perfect state the soul being incorporeal has no contrary states still by reason of the body it can pass from a more perfect to a less perfect state and may be said by reason of the body to have contrary states all the passions belong to the sensitive appetite and are divided into two great classes passiones concubus kibble's and passiones irasibiles according as they belong to the concupisable appetite which has for object the good or evil as agreeable or repugnant in itself or to the irasable appetite which has for object the good apprehended as subject to some circumstance of difficulty or danger the emotions of the higher or more spiritual kind that is those which belong to the intellectual appetite are not passions properly so called because they do not imply a transmutatio corporalis will is the faculty which has for its object the good apprehended by reason appetite is concerned with the good just as cognition is concerned with the true cognition goes before appetite and the nature of the latter depends on the nature of the former sensuous appetite the tendency towards what is good for the body follows sense perception rational appetite or will the tendency towards the rational good follows intellectual knowledge as the intellect cannot but ascent to first principles so the will cannot but tend towards good in general bottom commune with regard therefore to good in general there is no freedom of choice choice is possible only in reference to particular goods now the intellect presents a particular good in such a manner that while we perceive it to be good we perceive at the same time that without it good in general or universal good may be attained this perception is the ground of freedom the root of freedom radix libertatis is therefore the reason and freedom of choice libero marbitrium may be said to include the action of the intellect as well as that of the will pro tanto neck essay s quad homo sit librae arbitrary ex hoc ipso quad rationalis est comparing intellect and will st. thomas decides that absolutely speaking intellect is superior to will although if we consider the object of will perfects the will and that some of the objects of will are superior to the object of intellect we must he says decide that in this respect secundum quid will is superior to intellect mellior est amo de quam cognitio a contraria or tem mellior est cognitio rarum corporalium quam amo simplicitair tarman intellectus est no bilio quam volantas for cosmology the eternity of the world is not contrary to reason in this sense that absolutely speaking God could have created something ab eterno and therefore the origin of the world in time is not a truth demonstrable by reason the world as it exists is good its goodness is apparent if we consider the end for which it was created it is not however the most perfect world possible for God in his infinite power could and can create a more perfect world the world was created out of nothing for all finite being whether potential or actual is dependent on God even eternal matter if it existed before the production of the first forms of actual being must have originated by virtue of the divine will criatio est emanatio totius essay ex nonente quod est nihil every created being is composed as we shall see of potency in actuality everything in the visible universe is composed of matter and form matter is potency material prima is utter in determination potentiality and nothing more it is described in generabilis et incorruptibilis una unitate ordnis tantum and again omnium generabilium et corruptibilium essay de materia est sewer potentia passiva secret deus est potentia activa form confers actuality and specific determination former secondum id quod est actus est et per a and re's ecto existent form is the principle of action and being in living things it is the principle of life and in all material things it is the source of all qualities even of impenetrability and extension it is important in view of modern theories of matter to note that according to the schoolmen the actual extension of a body is due to the form although the potency of extension comes from the matter it is because matter contains the potency of extension that st. Thomas says quantitas say tenet ex parte materiae the form is the source of all actuality in material substances it is the determining principle causing the substance to be what it is it is therefore the principle of specific distinction the principle of individuation namely that by which individuals of the same species are differentiated not matter in general for that enters into the specific definition and is common to all members of the species but matter terminated by its dimensions materiae determinatis dimensionnibus signata it follows from this and st. Thomas admits the inference that since the angelic nature is formed without matter there is no numerical distinction among spiritual substances sequitur quadimpossibili sid esse duos angolos unios specchiai quatsunt individua totsunt specches the human soul is like the angelic nature in as much as it is spiritual but unlike in as much as it is the substantial form of the body it is individuated by the body and after its separation from the body each soul still retains a certain habidudo ad corpus which distinguishes it from other human souls the principle omni quadmovitur quantum ad aliquid manate ad quantum ad aliquid transit is the basis of the termistic as it was of the Aristotleian doctrine of matter and form both st. Thomas and Aristotle assumed that there are substantial changes and in order to explain substantial change they postulated the existence of two substantial principles the one matter permanent and the other form transient space although real is not something distinct from the dimensions of existing bodies it is not infinite for it is coterminus with the limits of the actual universe beyond which nothing exists except potential space time st. Thomas accepts the Aristotleian definition of time in the Summa Theologica he teaches that it is the mind which alternates the present instant thus as it were constituting the flow or succession which is time fluxus ipsius nunc secondum quad alternator racione est tempus and in the commentaries on the books of sentences he quotes with approval the Aristotleian principle see non-esset anima non-esset tempus neither st. Thomas nor any of his contemporaries imagined the heavenly bodies to be composed of the same matter as that of the physical world around us the matter of the terrestrial world is made up of the four elements celestial matter is different from terrestrial matter or is at most only analogous to it the heavenly bodies are incorruptible because in them the form fills all the potency of the matter illiforma sick perficate illum materium quadnulomodo in air reminete potentia ad essay said at ubi tantum five metaphysics and natural theology being is that which exists or can exist either in the mind or outside the mind it is opposed to not being neahill the notion of being is peculiar in this that it can either be defined nor divided because of the simplicity of its comprehension and the universality of its extension being is therefore reduced to lower classes such as substance animal man not by adding some difference distinct from being itself but by bringing out explicitly in the lower classes what is implicitly contained in the comprehension of the notion of being in general hence being is not to be predicated univocally of its lower classes being is the most universal of notions it is in fact transcendental that is to say extending above and beyond all classes it includes the highest reality as well as the lowest god who is pure actuality as well as materia prima which is mere potency between these two poles of existence range all created beings for in everything created there is a dual composition of actuality and potency actus et potentia even in the highest of the angels immaterial as he is there is not only a composition of essence and existence of that by which he is and the act of existence but also a composition of substance and accident in material things there is a threefold composition one of essence and existence two of substance and accident and three of matter and form god alone is free from all composition in him there is no matter or potency of any kind his essence is his existence his action is his substance he is pure actuality actus purus thus does the metaphysics of st. thomas point heavenward not only in the ultimate problems of the existence and nature of god but also in its initial concept the dualism of all created being the principles of being in the ontological order prima principia ascendi are the four causes matter form efficient cause and final cause each of these is in its own way a cause in so far as the effect depends on it the principles of being in the logical order prima principia cognos kendi are immediate analytical truths sometimes known as axiomata or dignitatis the first of these the starting point of all demonstration is the principle of contradiction for just as the notion of being is the first object of the act of ideation and that on which all subsequent ideation is based so the principle of contradiction which springs as it were from the first elementary analysis of the notion of being is the first object of the act of judgment and the foundation on which all our other judgments rest the highest classes of being are the categories substance etc st thomas following Aristotle distinguishes the first substance which is the individual or hypostasis and the second substance which is the universal substantial nature abstracted from the individual first substance really exists as such second substance does not exist as such except in the mind it is the quiddity or essence which is expressed by the definition and which as thus defined exists in the mind alone for in concrete things it is individuated the existence of god is the truth which is per se nota coad say the proposition god exists is analytical for if we could comprehend the subject of the proposition we should see immediately that it includes the predicate that of itself the divine nature includes existence but we cannot adequately comprehend the subject of the proposition for us therefore coad nos the proposition god exists is not self evident or analytical consequently it must be demonstrated st thomas after examining and rejecting st Anselm's ontological argument proceeds to point out the five ways in which by arguing from effect to cause a posteriori the existence of god may be proved these ways are one from the principles that whatever is moved is moved by something else quid quid movitor ab alio movitor and that an infinite series of moving agents is impossible known as procadere in infinitum two from the relation between cause and effect known as posibile quad incorsus effigientibus procadeter in infinitum three from the relation of the contingent to the necessary see omnia sun possibility non essay aliquando nihil fluid in rabus non ego omnia entia sund posibilia said or ported aliquid essay necusarium in rabus four from the different degrees of perfection in things which exist magis et minas dicunto de diversis secundum quad appropriate quant diversa modi ad aliquid quad maxima s five from the order and adaptation of the universe a qui non habent cognitio nem non tendent in finum nisi directa ab aliquo cognosente et intelligente but although we can know that god exists we cannot comprehend what he is not even in that unobstructed vision of the divine nature which constitutes the supreme happiness of the blessed in heaven can the human mind fully and adequately comprehend the nature of god nevertheless even in this life we can attain an imperfect knowledge of what god is for we can proceed one by way of analogy that is by purifying from all imperfection attributes which denote perfection in created things and predicating of god attributes thus sublimated and two by a way of negation that is by excluding from god such attributes as imply in perfection and thus determining what god is not proceeding by this twofold method saint tomah shows that god is pure actuality actus purus from which it follows that he is infinite perfect one immutable eternal etc in relation to creatures god is creator and preserver he is the first efficient cause on whom all finite being depends for he made all creatures out of nothing he is also the first exemplar cause because he made all things according to the ideas or types which existed in the divine mind through all eternity he is moreover the preserver and ruler of the world he watches over all his creatures and conserves them for without his sustaining hand they would return to the nothing out of which he brought them he cooperates in all our actions in the natural as well as the supernatural order finally he is the ultimate end for which all things were made and to which all rational creatures tend to return this last consideration brings us to saint thomas's ethical doctrines six moral and political doctrines the object of all appetite is the good the end of all human action is happiness universal good which is the conscious or unconscious aim of all rational action is fully realized in the infinite good which is god god alone as saint augustin talk can fill the void of the human heart and man will not rest until he attains the happiness which leaves no desire unsatisfied saint thomas teaches that it is derogatory to the dignity of man to seek final and ultimate happiness in anything short of the infinite good although the knowledge and love of god in which consists the enjoyment of the infinite good are to be fully realized only in the next life yet here on earth there is an imperfect form of happiness which man may attain aliqualis beatitudinis patikipatio in high vita habere protest perfecto autumn et vera beatitudo known protest habiri in high vita as constituents of this imperfect happiness saint thomas mentions health external goods and the society of friends the moral goodness or evil of an action depends ultimately on whether the action leads to or a verse from the end for which man was created approximately on the object circumstances and purpose of the action itself omnis actio in quantum habit aliquid de essay in tantum habit de bonitate in quantum vera a aliquid defecate de plentitudine ascendi in tantum defecate a bonitate at sick digitur mala if object circumstances and end in tension or good the action is good if any of these is evil the action is evil hence the scholastic adage bonum ex integra causa malam ex crocunque defectu virtue is defined bona qualitas mentis quai rectae vivitur quai nulus male utitur the theological virtues faith hope and charity are infused natural virtues whether intellectual or moral are acquired by exercise in the actions pertaining to such virtues although the aptitude for one virtue or another as well as the general aptitude for virtue is part of the natural endowment of man virtutes in nobis sunt a natura secundum aptitudinem et incuationem non atom secundum perfectionem praite virtutes theologicas quai sunt totalitae ab extran seco saint thomas follows the aristotelian classification of moral virtues basing it on the division of the objects of the passions sometimes he divides moral virtues into four principle or cardinal virtues law is the extrinsic principle of morality it is defined quidem ordinatio racionis ad bonum communi ab ai qui curam communitatis habit promiogata a law therefore in order to be obligatory must be reasonable it must be for the good of the community it must issue from the proper authority and it must be duly promulgated saint thomas distinguishes eternal or divine law natural law which is a participation of the divine law and is promulgated by being written in the fleshy tables of the heart and positive law which is a derivation from eternal law and is divided into divine ecclesiastical and civil law the state the treatise de regiminae principis is now universally conceded to be the work of two authors the first two books are undoubtedly to be ascribed to saint thomas the other two were added by some disciple probably by tolamy of looker in the first two books of de regiminae principis in the commentaries on the politics of Aristotle and elsewhere in his different works saint thomas expounds the following political doctrines a man is naturally ordained for the society of his fellow men est homini naturali quad in societate will torum vivat b authority in civil society must have in view the public good if he'd lose sight of this it becomes unjust anti-social and tyrannical tyrannical authority is held in check by the authority of the church which provides for the spiritual welfare of all the faithful and has the power at least in the case of the apostasy of the tyrant to absolve his subjects from obedience on the ground that the ruler is an apostate besides if the rule of a tyrant is contrary to public good or to divine law it ceases to mind in conscience see tyrannical power is also held in check by the popular will tyrannicide is to be condemned the redress to which the subjects of a tyrant have a just right must be sought not by an individual but by an authority temporarily constituted by the people and acting according to law nec pudanda est ales multitudo infidelitae ageri tyrannum destituens etiam see idem in perpetuum say ante subjectorat queer hoc ipsi meruit immultitudinous regimine se non fidelitae gerens d the aim of the state is not merely economical but also moral and from this principle saint thomas deduces conclusions which are in remarkable accordance with modern political theories for example that it is the duty of the state to provide for the education of all its members and to see that no citizens suffers want see saint thomas has no predilection for one form of government rather than another he argues on general grounds that the unity of society is better secured by the rule of one than by the rule of the few or of the many still he maintains that the aristocratic and democratic forms of government are as legitimate as the monarchical form he sets forth the advantages of a constitution in which all have a voice in the government of the state ut omenes aliquam partem habiant in precipitou pehok enem conservator pax populi and he lays down the general principle that it is not the form of government but the fidelity with which the government adheres to the purpose for which it is instituted that decides the happiness and prosperity of the subjects historical position an organic synthesis of the elements of thought contained in preceding systems is as real in advance in the development of philosophy as is the introduction of elements absolutely new in the one as well as in the other respect the philosophy of saint thomas is to be pronounced in advance in philosophical thought saint thomas synthesized the more or less fragmentary truths which during the preceding centuries the schoolmen had slowly gathered together as well as the elements of thought which during the early part of the century in which he lived scholasticism had derived from greek and arabian sources he perfected the scholastic method and consecrated to the service of truth the dialectic which rationalists had abused and which mystics had denounced he gave to the doctrine of moderate realism its final expression and enunciated a theory of universals which united what is true in platonism with what is true nominalism he was the first to formulate a complete system of christian arisotelianism thus pressing into the service of orthodoxy the philosopher to whom arabian and jewish unbelievers had looked as their champion in the warfare which they waged on christianity he determined for all time the true relation between faith and reason and while avoiding the extremes of rationalism and mysticism gave permanent form to the thought which had inspired every christian philosopher since the days of justin the first of the great apologists and all this he accomplished not so much by creating as by transforming and assimilating with a comprehensiveness of purpose which in these modern times seems nothing short of stupendous he laid broad and deep the foundations of his vast synthetic system and with a force and directness less easily to be attained in the rich confusion of modern thought compelled every source of knowledge to yield him material for his work he drew from the scriptures from the fathers from the philosophers of Greece and Rome from his predecessors in the christian schools and from contemporary arabian and jewish philosophers it detracts neither from the recognized importance of those who preceded saint thomas nor from his own just title to praise as an original thinker to say that he perfected the work of his predecessors and from materials which they supplied reconstructed the edifice of christian philosophy what is new and wholly original in the work of saint thomas is the spirit in which he addressed himself to his task the sense of completeness which impelled him to leave nothing incomplete or imperfect except in so far as everything human must be incomplete and imperfect the mind appreciative of the value of truth wheresoever truth is found and the belief stronger and more deep rooted in him that in any other school man that all truth and all knowledge from whatever source it is derived is capable of harmonious adjustment in point of detail saint thomas contributed to scholastic philosophy the doctrines by which the dominican tradition was distinguished from the franciscan teaching the oneness of the substantial form in each individual the doctrine of subsistent forms the denial of the rationes seminales in the sense in which they were admitted by saint bonaventure and the affirmation of the real distinction between the soul and its faculties it was on these points that as we shall see thomas and anti thomas came to be divided it is only when as we study the history of latest scholasticism and the history of the philosophy of modern times we shall look back to the thirteenth century through the perspective of ages of less successful attempts at philosophical synthesis that we shall begin to realize the true grandeur of the most commanding figure in the history of medieval thought end of chapter 38 section 2 chapters 39 and 40 of history of philosophy this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org recording by Yvonne Theodore history of philosophy by William Turner chapter 39 thomas and anti thomas sources besides the works of the philosophers to be mentioned under this head we possess as valuable sources of information deniflis carlitarium universitatis perusciensis and articles by deniflis url and others in the zeit schrift for catholic the oligie and in the archive for literature und kirche geschichte desmetalates while saint thomas was teaching at the convent of saint james several of his doctrines especially that of the unity of the substantial form in man aroused violent opposition among his confrers of the order of saint dominique of these dominican opponents of saint thomas the most prominent were roland of cremona richard fitzaker and robert kilwerby it was owing to the influence of kilwerby who was archbishop of canterbury that the masters of the university of oxford carried their opposition to thomas so far as to censor as dangerous the denial of the russians simonelles and the affirmation of the unity of the substantial form in man this was in 1277 in the following year however all opposition on the part of the dominican ceased and in a general chapter of the order held at melanne in that year those who had opposed the teaching of saint thomas in england were censored the franciscans jealous for the reputation of the great teachers of their order alexander of hails and saint bonaventure made common cause with those who objected to the doctrine of unity of substantial forms and to the denial of the russian simonelles doctrines which as we have seen were part of the franciscan tradition foremost among saint thomas's franciscan adversaries were william de la mer author of the coruptorium fratis tamai richard of middletown who was appointed to the franciscan chair at paris in 1281 john peckham who after teaching at paris and at oxford succeeded kilwerby in the sea of canterbury and peter john olivy 1248 to 1298 who later on unsettled the idea of discipline in his own order by his defense of literal poverty a doctrine which brought about his condemnation in 1283 opposed to the doctrines introduced by saint thomas were also the secular teachers the chief of whom were william of saint amour gerard of abbeyville and henry of gent when on march 7 1277 steven tempierre at the request of john 21 assembled the master's a theology of the university of paris to condemn the errors then prevalent in the schools the secular masters united with the franciscans and succeeded in placing on the list of condemned prepositions several for example numbers 81 96 and 191 which were evidently meant to formulate the thomistic doctrine of substantial forms and of individuation thus to the secular teachers of the university achieve a disgraceful triumph in the momentary discredit thrown on him who had been the great champion of the mendicants in the controversy concerning university privilege but while the opposition to thomism was as short lived as it was violent the number and importance of the advocates and defenders of saint thomas grew slowly but steadily as time went on first among these were olrick of strasberg a disciple of albert the great bennard of hatan who was bishop of dublin and died in 1298 william macklefield who taught at oxford giles of ron ijadis a calamina or ijadis romanus of the order of hermit's a saint augustine surnamed doctor fundotissimas 1243 to 1316 peter of arjen who was probably a pupil of saint thomas at paris and godfrey of fontanes died 1304 petrus hispanus 1226 to 1277 who in 1276 became pope taking the name of john 21 seems to have avoided the thomistic controversy and confined his attention to the steady illogical problems his sumali logic house became a textbook in the schools and was known as a logica mondanero in contra distinction to the logica vitas and the logica nova he is said to be the author of the monomic lines babra celeron vincent of bobey died 1264 helped to popularize the current philosophical doctrines of his time in his encyclopedic treaties entitled specula magnum in what she adhered to the teaching of albert and saint thomas the work was intended to cover the whole field of education as it was then understood three portions speculum hysterelle speculum natural and speculum doctrine now were completed by vincent the fourth specula morale which is merely an extract from the writings of saint thomas was added by another hand herve of needle like herveas natalis who died in 1323 must be reckoned among the ableist of the first followers of saint thomas he's the author of many works on philosophy and theology including though this is by no means certain the summa totias logica found among the obscula of saint thomas dante 1265 to 1321 whose divina comedia has been described as aqueous inverse may also be counted among those who helped to give wide circulation to the philosophical doctrines of saint thomas the influence of saint thomas and of the other great schoolman was still preponderant in paris when dante studied at the university in that city and his deminarchia may be placed by the sides of the treatise des régimes principus as a valuable contribution to the political science of the middle ages although the divine comedy was written at a time when scholasticism had begun to decline and is therefore as ozonum so beautifully expresses it the swan song of scholasticism it embodies the best doctrines of the golden age of philosophy the subsequent history of the thomistic school involves a study of the philosophical systems of henry of gantt and of dunce scotus who are the most important of the earlier opponents of thomism and who alone of all the anti thomists left behind them a school of anti thomistic tradition end of chapter 39 chapter 40 henry of gantt life henry of gantt dr solemnness was born at or near gantt in the first or second decade of the 13th century very little is known about his early life in 1267 he became canon of tornai later on he taught with distinction at the university of paris and took part in the discussion which arose in 1282 concerning the privileges of the mendicants in regard to hearing confessions between 1284 and 1293 he made several journeys from paris to tornai he died in 1293 but whether at paris or at tonai is uncertain sources the most important of henry's works are husuma te lochiga and his corele pe the former was published at gantt in 1520 and again at ferrara in 1646 the latter was published at paris in 1518 at venice in 1608 and again at venice in 1613 monograph de wouf etude se henry de gantt louvain in 1894 embodying la history de la philosophie scholastique danse les péspa etc louvain 1895 doctrines henry's system of philosophy agrees in its general outlines with the philosophy of saint thomas there are however some points of difference one relation of philosophy to theology while agreeing with saint thomas that philosophy and theology are distinct sciences and that each has its proper object henry insists that philosophy is not to be studied for its own sake but as an aid to theology ici sont qui ambulant en vanité sans essui 2 principle of individuation the principle of individuation is not matter with its determined dimensions as saint thomas taught that a negative property of the suppositum or individual henry teaches that the remote cause of individuation is matter and as much as matter is the basis of multiplicity but that the proximate cause is something which is distinct from matter although it is not a positive reality ici sont qui ambulant en vanité sans essui 2 principle of individuation 3 distinction between essence and existence henry denies the real distinction between essence and existence thus returning to the doctrine of alexander of hails and of the first schoolman of the 13th century he maintains the thesis 4 plurality of substantial forms henry maintains that besides the rational soul there is in man another substantial form the forma cooperatates or forma comunicaciones corporales his argument is as follows aleter innum nihil omni homo in generación hominis generat substantial seed tantamundo coromperet this form is the famous mediator plasticus of later scholasticism 5 theory of knowledge misunderstanding the scholastic doctrine of ideation henry while admitting in the case of sense knowledge the existence of the species sensibilis as a substitute for the object denies the existence of the intelligible species on the ground that the phantasm by becoming spiritualized determines the intellect to the act of knowledge envy sensitiva apprehensiva requirteu species objecti invi autum apprehensiva intellectuus nulla species requirteu de objecto qui aipsum objectum existence in phantasm factum universal pricence est et simulcom intellectu 6 augustin aneism in more than one point of doctrine henry of gent returns the augustinian and platonic tradition of the 11th century for example he attaches great importance to intellectual memory teaches that there is no real distinction between the soul and its faculties and adds to the augustinian doctrine of exemplaryism the theory of a special elimination by which man attains a transcendent knowledge of the essences of things as they exist in the divine mind and a supernatural truth natural eye enum apetitu perintisirat homo saia etiam ila gai sunt supernatiritia cognisinda kai secondum communinum ilstresinem advino exemplarai sine estresion specularai non potes antinjea 7 superiority of will to intellect henry is the first of the medieval volunteerists he maintains his superiority of will with respect to intellect intellect indeed precedes will nevertheless will is the more perfect faculty intellect being merely its servant omni new habitus et actus et objectum voluntatis preaminent actuai habitui et objecto intellectus is circo absolute descendant quad voluntas preminent intellectuai et est altua potentia ilo historical position henry of gent contributed to scholastic philosophy a very able refutation of skepticism his renewal of the augustinian tradition which had been so important in the schools of the centuries preceding the 13th was in keeping with the teachings of the franciscan masters and helped to prepare the way for the error of greater franciscan influence inaugurated by dunce scotis end of chapter 40 chapters 41 and 42 of history of philosophy this is a librivox recording all librivox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit librivox.org history of philosophy by william churner chapter 41 john dunce scotis life john dunce scotis dr. subtilis the most gifted opponent of tomism rises above the plane of mere controversialists and takes rank among the great schoolmen if not among the greatest he was born according to some writers in 1266 according to others in 1274 where he was born is also uncertain the most common opinion being that england was his birthplace at an early age he entered the franciscan order and made his studies at oxford where the anti-tomistic party was for the time triumphant from 1294 to 1304 he taught at oxford in 1304 he began to teach in paris in 1308 he was transferred to cologne where he died the same year both at oxford and at paris scotis enjoyed a reputation as a teacher which was unequaled by even the greatest of his predecessors sources the opus oxoniense which together with other works was composed while scotis was at oxford is a commentary on the books of sentences the works or rather the lecture notes which he composed at paris were collected by his disciples under the title reportata paris ciencia or opus paris ciencia the complete works of scotis were published by look wedding lyon 1639 this edition was reprinted by viv paris 1891 monograph plus en ski la philosophie de dun scotus paris 1887 doctrines the philosophy of dan scotis is characterized by criticism and subtlety owing perhaps to his predilection for mathematical studies a predilection which is said to be due to the influence of roger bacon scotis was too much inclined to reject as inconclusive the philosophical arguments of his predecessors he attacked without distinction of school and apparently without the least respect for the prestige of a great name the doctrines of alexander of hails saint benaventure roger bacon hendry afghans and above all saint thomas such is the subtlety of his speculations that even the mind trained in scholastic modes of thought has considerable difficulty in following his line of reasoning philosophy and theology scotis while agreeing with saint thomas that philosophy and theology are distinct sciences insists on the inferiority of the former maintaining that human reason is incapable of solving such problems as the immortality of the soul indeed his doctrine on this point comes dangerously near to the avaroistic principle that what is true in theology maybe falls in philosophy divine attributes saint thomas thought that there exists only a distinctio racionis or logical distinction between the divine nature and the divine attributes justice power etc scotis maintains that the distinction in question is not merely logical neither is it real but something which is partly real and partly logical distinzio formalis aparterei this celebrated distinction sometimes referred to as the scotistic distinction is not easy to understand its opponents contend that it implies a contradiction it is more than logical for it exists aparterei independently of the mind and it is less than real for it is a distinction not of things but merely a formalities which may exist in one and the same thing as for example the distinction between animality and rationality in man according to scotis the essence of things as well as their existence depends not on the divine intellect but on the divine will matter and form scotis revives the doctrine of universal matter which the first franciscan teachers had borrowed from avicibrol ego autem at posizionem avicibrones radio et primam partem shilicet quot in omnibus creatis per se subsistentibus tam corporalibus quam spiritualibus sit una materia tenio all created substances are therefore composed of matter and form scotis with characteristic subtlety distinguishes three kinds of materia prima materia primo prima habens actum de se omnino indeterminatum rispetto determinatiois cui us libet forme materia secundo prima quest subietum genera zionis et corrupzionis quam mutant agencia criata seo angeli seo agencia corruptibilia materia terzio prima quest materia cui us libet artis et materia cui us libet agentis naturalis particulares the substantial form is not a saint tamas taught essentially one it determines the matter to a higher mode of being but this determination gives rise to an indetermination or potency with respect to a higher form thus the generic form leads to the specific and the specific to the individual so that the more complete is the determination of matter the greater is the purification of forms in matter omnis forma si ve plurificatio este imperfecto et indeterminato et perfectum et determinatum de uno materiali et plura formality distincta doctrine of universals in the questiones acutissime superuniversalia porfirii scotis develops a doctrine of moderate realism in his metaphysical treatises he defends the plurality of substantial generic and specific forms formalitatis which have an objective reality and a kind of unity inferior to numerical unity in this manner scotis prepares the way for his followers who built on his metaphysical doctrines a system of exaggerated realism essence and existence between essence and existence there is according to scotis a distinctio formalis aparte rei the principle of individuation is neither matter nor form nor quantity but an individual property added to these this property was called by the scotis the thisness heteritas of a thing scotis denies the termistic doctrine that there cannot be two angels of the same species simpliciter possibili est plures angelo esti in e adem spezia volunteerism the philosophy of scotis is volunteeristic in its entire spirit scotis explicitly teaches that the will is superior to the intellect saint thomas taught that the intuitive contemplation of the divine essence in the beatific vision is the principle and indeed the essential element in man's final happiness scotis teaches that it is by the act of perfect love of god in the next life that final happiness is to be attained in a similar spirit of volunteerism scotis holds that the natural law depends on the will of god and that actions are good because god has commanded them while saint thomas true to the principles of intellectualism taught that natural law depends on the mind of god and that god commands certain actions because they are good scotis maintains that human reason alone cannot prove the omnipotence of god and the immortality of the human soul saint thomas taught that these truths are demonstrable by reason there are many other points of contrast between the tenets of the subtle doctor and those of the angel of the schools the antithesis between the two great teachers is not to be explained by the quote wish on the part of brother john to contradict whatever brother thomas had taught and quote it is an antithesis arising out of the difference in the mental temperaments of the two men the difference between an intellectualist and a volunteerist historical position scotis is frequently described as the cunt of scholastic philosophy he certainly resembles cunt in his refusal to accept without criticism any theory no matter how universally received or how strongly supported by the authority of great names the resemblance is accentuated by the fact that both scotis and cunt are volunteerists both maintaining that will is superior to intellect and that human reason cannot demonstrate the truths which most vitally affect the destiny of man but remarkable as the resemblance is no less striking is the contrast between the two philosophers cunt appeals to the moral consciousness to prove the truths which reason cannot demonstrate scotis on the contrary appeals to revelation scotis places the supernatural order of truth above all philosophical knowledge and consequently his criticism is partial and relative to the natural order of truth while cunts is radical and absolute for cunt there is no court of appeal superior to the moral consciousness for scotis the supreme tribunal before which all truth is judged is divine revelation scotis inaugurates an age of talent rather than of genius the influence of saint benaventure albert and saint thomas seems to have silenced for a while the contentions which distracted the earlier schoolmen but now that the great constructive thinkers have disappeared the intellectual night errantry of abalards day once more comes into vogue and minds incapable of constructive effort devote themselves to analysis and controversy it is among these lesser lights that scotis subtle and penetrating as his mind was must be classed for while he excelled even the greatest of the schoolmen in critical acumen he was wanting in that synthetic power which saint thomas possessed in so preeminence a degree and which more than any other quality of mind stamps the writer or thinker as a philosopher tomists and scotists in scotus the opponents of tomism found a champion from this time forth the franciscan teachers follow the leadership of don scotus while the dominicans range themselves behind saint thomas the principal scotists were francis of maron died 1327 ser named magister acutus abstraction and antonio andrea died 1320 ser named doctor du ciflus during the 14th and 15th centuries there appeared also the following scotists john of basilis john dumbleton walter burley doctor planos at perspicus alexander of alexandria loquetas of breccia and nicolas de orbellis the best known of the tomists of this period are gerard of balonia died 1317 john of naples died 1330 peter de palude pierre de la palu died 1342 and john capriolus 1380 to 1444 who was ser named princeps tomistarum in the course of time the controversy between the rival schools absorbed the attention which should have been devoted to the development of scholastic philosophy in relation to the scientific doctrines introduced at the opening of the modern era this as we shall see is one of the reasons why scholasticism failed to accommodate itself to the scientific movements chapter 42 a veroism in the schools when in the first decades of the 13th century the greek text of Aristotle was introduced into the schools and the christian philosophers began to compose commentaries on the latin translations made from it the followers of the arabian commentators commence to give a more decidedly anti-christian direction to their interpretation of Aristotle in this way they're spraying up two hostile schools of Aristotelianism the orthodox Aristotelianism of the schoolmen and the heterodox Aristotelianism of the avaroists the unity of the active intellect the immortality of the individual soul the freedom of the will and the question of fatalism were some of the points on which the schoolmen and the avaroists differed in their interpretation of the philosopher but the most characteristic doctrine of the avaroists a doctrine which involved the denial of the most vital principle of scholasticism was that what is true in philosophy maybe falls in theology and vice versa towards the end of the 13th century avaroism appeared in the University of Paris and was made the subject of several ecclesiastical inquiries and condemnations its chief representatives were Sieger of Brabant died 1282 or 1288 Boethius the Dacian and Bernier of Nivelle among the opponents of avaroism are to be reckoned the great schoolmen who like Albert and Saint Thomas composed treatises for the express purpose of refuting the doctrines of the avaroists and controversialists like Raymond Lully who undertook an extensive campaign against the errors of the Arabians Raymond Lully life Raymond Lully doctor Illuminatus is in some respects one of the most remarkable figures in the history of medieval philosophy his whole life was dominated by the idea of converting the Moorish worlds to Christianity this he hoped to accomplish by the preaching of the gospel by the refutation of the errors of the Arabians and by the scientific demonstration of the revealed truths of the Christian religion he was an apostle a controversialists and a theosophist he was also an inventor having contrived among other things a logical machine by means of which he hoped to prove all truth Raymond was born at Mallorca in 1234 or 1235 after spending some years at the court of Aragon he entered the order of Saint Francis and devoted the remainder of his life to the conversion of the Moors he was stoned by the muslims at Tunis in 1315 sources Raymond's works occupy 11 folio volumes in the minds edition 1721 to 1742 the most important of his treatises Ars Brevis Duodicim Principia philosophy and Ars Mania were published at Strasburg in 1651 doctrines Raymond theosophy appears in the doctrine that all truths including the mysteries of faith are demonstrable by human reason the doctrine however is not to be understood in the rationalistic sense for Raymond maintains that reason in order to attain the highest truths must be aided by faith the logical machine which Raymond invented seems to have been contrived and constructed on the principle that not only are ideas representations of realities but the combinations of ideas are representations of the truth existing in real things the machine was made up of letters which symbolized the elements of thought and of different geometrical figures such as circles squares triangles etc along which the letters could be moved so as to form different combinations each resultant combination representing a conclusion and each process of movement representing a proof it is possible that Raymond was led to the idea of constructing a logical machine by his study of the cabalistic philosophy of the jews he frequently expresses his great admiration for what he calls the superabundance sapiencia the mystic doctrine of jewish philosophy historical position Raymond's contemporaries did not agree as to the value of his contributions to philosophy and theology some regarded him not only as orthodox in his teaching but especially illumined from on high doctor illuminatus they commented on his works and provided for the foundation of special chairs to perpetuate his doctrines in the universities of barcelona and valencia others on the contrary so vehemently denounced his teachings as heterodox that the inquisitor of aragon was instructed to drop a list of propositions from the writings of raiment and forwarded to roam it is uncertain whether the propositions were formally condemned it is however generally admitted that were it not for the savor of heterodoxy attaching to his doctrines raiment would have been canonized retrospect before passing to the fourth period of scholastic philosophy let us look back at the period which we have just studied it is the golden age of scholasticism during the 13th century christian revelation and scientific knowledge were harmonized in the great synthetic systems of christian philosophy the dogmatic doctrines of the patristic period were welded into a more consistent body of theological speculation the whole range of human knowledge was surveyed and whatever was found to be true was given its proper place in systems of constructive thought it was an age of vast creative enterprises in the world of speculation it was an age on which the christian philosopher and the christian historian who have begun to understand it loved it well they realized that it was not a dark age but an age of enlightened faith which more than any other understood the paramount importance of the supernatural element in life and which while it gave to reason its legitimate rights was more willing than any other age to give unto god the things that are gods during the 13th century the church triumphed in italy in the temporary rule of her visible head she triumphed throughout the holy roman empire in the acknowledgement which emperors made of their dependence on the holy sea but it was in the christian schools of europe and especially friends that she achieved a still more honorable triumph in the recognition of the true value of theological science and in the universal acknowledgement of the principle that there can exist no contradiction between the data of revelation and the truths which human reason discovers soon all this was to be changed the struggles with the empire the exile to avignon and the western schism were to disrupt the external harmony in which sanctity and learning had driven while the growing influence of the avaroists and the decay of scholasticism were to bring about the final dissolution of scholastic philosophy by establishing the maxim that what is true in philosophy may be false in theology the 13th century was an age of men rather than of schools it was dominated by the personality of the great masters of scholasticism it was an age of great intellectual activity there was not as is sometimes asserted merely one school and that an uninvitingly orthodox one the unanimity with which the greatest of the schoolmen advocated the fundamental principles of scholasticism was compatible with a considerable degree of variety as to the details of method and doctrine roger bacon and albert the great advocated the use of observation and experiment and sought to introduce a reform in scientific method saint thomas refuted pantheism in natism and other errors and gave a positive development to aristotelian philosophy saint benaventure formulated a system of christian mysticism which was destined to become the inspiration of the orthodox mystics of later times henry of gent furnished arguments for the refutation of skepticism and developed the exemplarism of saint augustine and scotus inaugurated an age of criticism and formulated a system of volunteerism which should have stimulated the later scholastics to enlarge and strengthen the philosophical synthesis of scholasticism in presence of the dangers which were soon to threaten it indeed it is only the superficial student of the 13th century who can fail to recognize that it was a period of immense intellectual activity and of chapters 41 and 42 chapter 43 of history of philosophy this is a librivox recording all librivox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit librivox.org history of philosophy by william turner fourth period of scholasticism birth of alchem to taking of constantinople 1300 to 1453 the causes of the decay of scholastic philosophy were both internal and external the internal causes are to be found in the condition of scholastic philosophy at the beginning of the 14th century the great work of christian syncretism had been completed by the masters of the preceding period revelation and science had been harmonized contribution had been levied on the pagan philosophies of greece and arabia and whatever truth these philosophies had possessed had been utilized to form the basis of a rational exposition of christian revelation the efforts of roger bacon and of albert the great to reform scientific method had failed the sciences were not cultivated there was therefore no source of development and nothing was left for later scholastics except to dispute as to the meaning of principles to comment on the text of this master or of that and to subtelize to such an extent that scholasticism soon became a synonym for captures quibbling the great termistic principle that in philosophy the argument from authority is the weakest of all arguments was forgotten Aristotle, saint thomas or scotus became the criterion of truth and as salomon whose youthful wisdom had astonished the world profaned his old age by the worship of idols the philosophy of the schools in the days of its decadence turned from the service of truth to prostrate itself before the shrine of a master dialectic which in the 13th century had been regarded as the instrument of knowledge now became an object of study for the sake of display and to this fault of method was added a fault of style an uncouthness and barbarity of terminology which bewilder the modern reader the religious orders which had given to scholasticism its ablest masters now devoted all their attention to fomenting the thomistic and scotistic controversy thus frittering away on matters of trifling importance the gifts which should have been devoted to the more serious task of meeting the difficulties that sprang up on every side as the modern era approached the external causes of the decay of scholasticism were in the first place the political conditions of the time the 14th century was a period of strife between the secular and the spiritual power of rebellion of princes bishops and priests against the authority of the holy sea and of contests between rival claimants for the chair of peter religion seemed to lose its restraining power and moral depravity sorcery and occult science corrupted that true sense of the superiority of things spiritual which characterized the 13th century the universities too which had contributed so much to the success of scholasticism and had received so much from it in return now began to bring discredit on the scholastic system at paris the course of study for the degrees in theology was shortened and academic honors were distributed with more freedom than discretion mere youths in puberis and in berbis being through favor awarded the title of master add to this that everywhere throughout europe institutions inferior to the great universities were accorded the right to confer degrees which had hitherto been the monopoly of paris and oxford in the general relaxation of the spirit of serious study there appeared a phase of scholastic philosophy which may be said to have been inspired by the principle commonly known as akam's razor ansia non sunt multiplicanda sine necessitate in a spirit of protest against the extreme formalism of the scotists who multiplied metaphysical entities to an alarming degree the new philosophy aimed at simplicity soon however it carried the process of simplification to the extent of discarding as useless all serious metaphysical and psychological speculation it substituted dialectic for metaphysics advocated nominalism and ended in something dangerously near to sense sism and skepticism the chief representative of this phase of scholasticism is william of akam before his time however the tendencies which resulted in his philosophy appeared in the doctrines of durandus and aureolus chapter 43 predecessors of akam durandus life durandus of saint pour saint doctor resolutissimos was born at saint pour saint in auvergne towards the end of the 13th century he joined the order of saint dominic and was at first a most ardent defender of the doctrines of saint tamas about the year 1313 he taught theology at paris after spending some years in rome as master of the sacred palace during the reign of john the 22nd he returned to france and occupied successively the seas of limoges pui and moe he tells us himself that he was bishop of pui the year 1332 is the most probable date of durandus's death sources the most important of durandus's works is entitled super sentencias teologicas petri lombardi commentariorum libri quator it was published in paris in 1550 tretenheim mentioned several minor treatises cf prefacio to above addition doctrines by his independence of thought and his advocacy of certain principles which his contemporaries consider dangerous durandus earned the title of doctor resolutissimos still he never exceeded the limits of orthodoxy indeed the independence which he advocated and which he formulated in the principle naturalis filosofia non est shire quit aristoteles out ali filosofis and serent said quit habith veritas rerum had been professed before his time and formulated almost in the same words by saint thomas and the other great schoolmen such independence of thought was recognized as the birthright of every philosopher and the fact that durandus exercised this right without incurring ecclesiastical censure is the best refutation of the calumny that the church refused to tolerate independent thinking as long as she could enforce obedience to her commands durandus manifested his independence one in rejecting the sensible and intelligible species the reason which he adduces is a priori rather than empirical and is based on a misconception of the scholastic doctrine of species in his commentary on the books of sentences he first gives his opinion that the doctrine of species was introduced to explain sense perception and was transferred to the explanation of intellectual knowledge he then proceeds to criticize the doctrine of sensible species as follows omni ilut perquot tam quam per representativum potencia cognitiva now this argument is simply relevant the predecessors of durandus so far from teaching that the species is a medium representativum maintained on the contrary that it is merely a medium by which the object becomes present to the subject what may be called a medium presentativum that is to say a medium comunicazione it is owing to a similar misunderstanding that later nominalists and so many modern writers regard the scholastic doctrine of species as untenable two in rejecting the active intellect this follows as a natural consequence from the rejection of the species durandus teaches that there is no more need for an active intellect than of an active sense here again he misunderstands the scholastic doctrine there is need of an active intellect because although the object of intellectual knowledge the universal nature exists in the world of sense phenomena it exists there clothed in material conditions of which it must be divested before becoming actually intelligible and the task of separating the universal from these material conditions is the work of the active intellect three in his advocacy of nominalism this follows from the rejection of the active intellect durandus teaches that the object of the intellect is the individual as it exists and that the universal exists nowhere outside the mind durandus however does not openly profess nominalism that is he does not teach expressly as the followers of akam do that the only universality is the universality of names four in his doctrine of the principle of individuation durandus teaches that the principle of individuation is not distinct from the specific nature of the individual since everything is individuated by actual existence five in his rejection of divine cooperation with secondary causes this is the doctrine by which durandus places himself in most pronounced opposition to the current teaching of his time the scholastics of the 13th century unanimously taught that god is not only creator and preserver of all finite things but also cooperator in all the actions of secondary causes durandus maintains that all the actions of the creature proceed from god in as much as it is god who gave creatures the power to act but he denies that there is an immediate influxes of the creator in the actions of the creature the theological doctrines of durandus are still more at variance with current teaching and on some points his dramatic opinions can not without difficulty be reconciled with catholic belief historical position if dan scotus is the cunt durandus is the lock of scholastic philosophy his treatment of the most serious problems of psychology and metaphysics is marked by superficiality he seemingly took no pains to make himself acquainted with the doctrines which he criticized and his own solution of many a problem stops short of the points where the real problem begins simplicity even at the expense of thoroughness appears to have been his motto ariolus life peter dorriol ariolus dr facundus was born about the end of the 13th century at toulouse in 1318 he became master of theology at the university of paris in the following year he was made provincial of the franciscans in aquitaine in 1321 he was promoted to the metropolitan c of x he died in 1322 sources the works of ariolus quod libeta and commentaria in libro sentenciarum were published at rome 1596 to 1605 in four folio volumes doctrines ariolus was at first escotist later however actuated apparently by the idea which inspired durandus to simplify scholasticism he arrived at conclusions which are practically identical with those of the doctor most resolute he denied the reality of universals the existence of species and of the active intellect the distinction between essence and existence and the distinction between the soul and its faculties referring to the doctrine of species he says the expression forma specularis and the word idolum which occurs in the same article both being used to designate the species show that ariolus was as far as durandus was from understanding the role which the great schoolmen assigned to the species historical position the doctrines of ariolus as well as those of durandus prepared the way for the outspoken conceptualism of akam and of chapter 43 chapters 44 and 45 of history of philosophy this is a librivox recording all librivox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit librivox.org history of philosophy by william turner chapter 44 william of akam life william of akam venerabilis inceptor doktor invincibilis is by far the most important philosopher of this period he was born at akam in suri about the year 1280 it is said that he studied at merton college oxford where it is possible that he had done scoters for teacher there seems to be some doubt as to his having followed the lectures of scoters at paris he taught at paris between the years 1320 and 1323 after quitting his chair at paris he threw in his lot with the opponents of the temporal power of the popes was imprisoned at avenue escaped in 1328 and sought refuge at the court of louis of bavaria to whom he made the well-known promise tu me defendas gladio ego te defendam calamo it is not known with certainty where and when he died but it is probable that he died at munich in 1349 sources akam's principal philosophical works are superquator libro sentenciarum quod libeta tractatus logices and commentaries on aristotle in addition he wrote several controversial works in support of the claims of the states against the church his commentary on the books of sentences was published by trexel at leon in 1495 for bibliography and list of akam's controversial writings cf potast wegweiser page 871 doctrines nominalism akam is best known by his renewal of nominalism it would however be more correct to describe his doctrine of universals as a modified conceptualism in his commentary on the books of sentences he enumerates three different opinions concerning universals and then continues quarta posset esse opinio quod nihil est universale ex natura sua setantum ex instituzione ilu modo quod vox est universales set heco opinio videtur non vera in the tractatus logices he formulates his own doctrine that the universal is an intention of the mind opinion improbable nevertheless it is true that akam is in a certain sense a nominalist he maintains for example that propositions not things are the objects of scientific knowledge quod sole proposizione schiuntur akam therefore is a conceptualist who uses the language of nominalism he does not subscribe to the doctrine that the name vox is a lone universal but distinguishing between the vox scripta et prolata and the vox concepta or the term as it exists in the mind intention anime he declares that the letter alone possesses universality he is a terminist rather than a nominalist akam it should be said devoted special attention to the development of the logical doctrine of supposition as formulated in the sumule of petrus hispanos he would distinguish therefore between the meaning of the word and the supposition of the term and would attribute universality to the supposition as well as to the meaning but although akam did not profess the cruder form of nominalism he may justly be considered the forerunner of the nominalists who appeared at the close of the fourth period of the history of scholasticism psychology since the only reality is the individual the individual is the only object of knowledge there is therefore no need of an intermediary species knowledge takes place by immediate contact of subject with object it is intuitive there is indeed a kind of knowledge which akam calls abstractive this he maintains has nothing to do with really existing things all knowledge of reality is intuitive it follows that the active intellect is as useless as are the species akam however preserves the terms active intellect and passive intellect to designate the active and passive phases of the activity of the mind intelectus agents et intelectus posibilis sunt omnino idem re etrazione ideodico quod non est ponenda pluralitas sine necessitate the principle here enunciated is known as the law of parsimony or more commonly as akam's razor akam distinguishes between the rational soul and the sensitive form in man the letter is extended and is corruptible preter animam intelectivam est ponere alien formam silicit sensitivam superquam potest agents naturale corumpendo et producendo et ideo non sequitur quod heck est et incorruptibilis it is this sensitive soul which is united immediately with the body with regard to the rational soul neither reason nor experience can prove that the principle of understanding is the substantial form of the human body it follows that reason cannot demonstrate the immortality of the individual soul Aristotle's authority cannot be invoked because he speaks hesitatingly we are obliged therefore to accept these truths as matters of faith this leads to the next point akam skepticism akam does not deny the possibility of arriving at certitude the skeptical tendency in his philosophy manifests itself in the attempt to restrict the power of human reason we have just seen that he relegates the immortality of the soul to the sphere of faith in the list of truths which human reason cannot prove he includes the existence unity and infinity of god and the immediate creation of the universe by god the same peculiar form of skepticism appears in his ethical doctrines akam following scotus maintains that right and wrong depend on the will of god and thus endangers the necessity and immutability of the principles of morality historical position the principles which akam formulated led to materialistic skepticism akam was however saved from the explicit advocacy of materialism by his belief in the supernatural order of truth if we exclude the element of faith and take his philosophy as it stands we must pronounce him to be the forerunner of the anti-christian philosophers of the renaissance he has been described as the first protestant and indeed he defended in his controversial writings the principle subsequently invoked by the first reformers to justify the encroachments of the secular power in his philosophy too his whole attitude is one of protest against the prevailing realism and against the belief that the study of philosophy can be of material aid to theological sciences in an age when theism and spiritualism were universally taught as philosophical tenets he protested in the name of human reason that belief in god and in the spirituality of the human soul has no foundation except in revelation chapter 45 followers and opponents of akam akam's conceptualism and his attempt to simplify scholastic psychology and metaphysics constituted a reaction against a movement which was a source of real danger to scholasticism the ultra realism of the scotists and because akamism as it was called responded to a need of the hour it was accepted on every side and met with extraordinary success its triumph however was short-lived men soon realized that the danger which akamism introduced was greater than the evil which it saw to remedy within the period of seven years 1339 to 1346 three official condemnations were launched against it the first two emanating from the university of paris and the third from pope clement the sixth during the 15th century similar decrees were issued showing that the struggle between the akamists and their opponents continued until the close of the scholastic era among the first followers of akam were robert hallcote or olco died 1349 gregory of remony died 1358 and john buridan died about 1360 of these the most distinguished was john buridan he was born at betun towards the end of the 13th century between the years 1320 and 1323 he followed the lectures of akam at the university of paris in 1328 he became rector of the university and for a quarter of a century occupied the first place among the advocates of akamism which system he continued to defend in spite of prohibition and condemnation no importance is to be attached to the story that he was driven from the university and sought refuge in vienna buridan developed the nominalistic theory of universals and formulated a theory of will in which he maintained that the choice is invariably determined by the greater good and that the only freedom which we possess is a power of suspending our choice and reconsidering the motives for action the well-known comparison which gave rise to the expression buridan's s is not found in the works of buridan although it is possible that he made use of such an illustration in his lectures during the latter half of the 14th century marcellus of ingen and peter die were the principal defenders of the doctrines of akam the former after having achieved remarkable success as a teacher at paris served the term as rector of the university about the year 1379 he left paris went to heidelberg and was made rector of the university which had been founded in that city in 1356 peter die sir named the eagle of france was born at campagne in 1350 in 1380 he became master in the university of paris later he was promoted successfully to the seas of puy and of cambres he was made cardinal in 1411 and died in 1425 with these achimists is associated albert of saxony who died in 1390 in the 15th century gabriel bill 1430 to 1495 composed a collective in libros sentenciarum which is an exposition and defense of akam's doctrines among the opponents of akam's philosophy where many of the scotists already mentioned two these may be added the realists thomas of stressburg died 1357 and dominica flanners died 1500 and the theosophist raymond of sabunde raymond of sabunde a spanish physician was professor of philosophy and medicine at toulouse about the middle of the 14th century his principal work entitled theologia naturalis is similar in method and contents to the arts mania of lulley raymond explains the union of philosophy with theology as consisting in the ability of each science to establish all truth whether natural or supernatural whatever is contained in the book of nature is contained in the book of sacred scripture and whatever is contained in the book of sacred scripture is contained in the book of nature there is however this difference between the two books that what is contained in the book of nature is contained per modum probazioni while what is contained in the book of sacred scripture is contained per modum precepti et per modum mandati in this way raymond breaks down the distinction which the schoolman of the preceding age plays between the natural and the supernatural orders of truth a distinction which is as essential to the true doctrine of scholasticism as is the absence of contradiction between the two orders the general tendency of raymond's thought was towards realism rather than towards nominalism or conceptualism there is also traceable in his writings a leaning towards the mystic school of philosophy and although he does not formulate the principle amo ut intelligam he evidently attaches very great importance to the contemplative love of god as a factor in man's spiritual life while raymond was teaching theosophical mysticism in france and spain another and very different form of mysticism was being developed in the schools of the low countries end of chapters 44 and 45