 So, welcome everybody to press conference number five of the EGU's General Assembly 2024. My name is Hazel Gibson, I am the EGU's Head of Communications and I am delighted to be able to share four very exciting presentations with you today in the fifth of our seven press conferences that are being held during the course of this week. I will be introducing our speakers very shortly, but I also just want to make a small housekeeping point if you're joining us online, if you could please mute your microphones. There will be the opportunity to ask questions at the end of the panel presentations, but until then we need those microphones off. Thank you very much. So today's press conference is titled Learning from the Ancients, Journeys, Giants and Calcium Buildup and it represents a range of different subjects that were chosen from the 20,000 abstracts that were submitted to the General Assembly this year. I would like to introduce our speakers today. First of all, we have Adam Izdebski from the Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology in Germany. We have Gulsur Mahindy from the University of Mainz in Germany. We have John Janssen from the GFU Institute of Geophysics in the Czech Academy of Sciences in Czechia and Robert Pietrovski from the University, sorry from the Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization Polish Academy of Sciences in Poland. I will hand now the microphone over to Adam for the first presentation. Thank you. Thank you very much. Let me wait for the slides. OK, here we are. So what I'm going to present you today was some kind of a surprise that we encountered doing research on other similar connected topics, but this was really something that we did not expect to detect. So to detect the undetectable, that is, transhumant nomads in paleo-ecological data. What you see here is an image from the 19th century, from the Balkans and southeastern Europe, so from the Ottoman world, the Turkish Empire from the 15th to the early 20th century, nomads were ubiquitous. They were everywhere. They were part of the society of the everyday life. This is what we know from ethnographic sources, from this relatively recent point in time, but we know very little about their history because the states were not interested in recording them and because they were not part of the elites, so they didn't end up in the written record. And the states in particular, they were not interested in recording them because they were very difficult to tax. They moved around. They did not produce grain, but you can simply take away from the peasants. The Ottoman state, the Turkish state, was actually the only one and the first one that tried to tax them somehow because the Ottomans, this Turkish dynasty, they were historically nomads themselves, so they had different ideas in their administration how this could be done. They created different registers, but even these registers that you see here, a page from such a register, it's Turkish Persian language written in Arabic script, and you see that of many villages that we have in this register in a locality in Greece, only one actually contains information about the nomads, but when we have 100 years later, a famous Turkish traveler, Evliya Celebi, traveling there, he says they are everywhere. So what is going on? It's a very difficult question and typically historians cannot study it. What we did as part of a larger project on environmental history of north and Greece, we studied a number of lakes. Here you see the location and here the exact location. One of the places that we studied was Lake Volvi, the biggest lake in this part of Greece, in this part of the Balkans, and one of the analytical techniques that we applied was pollen analysis. So basically the study of fossilized old pollen grays that were produced during spring by plants several hundreds or sometimes even hundreds of thousands years ago. We don't go that far in our research and they ended up in water locked environments, so in places where there is no access of oxygen and then they could be preserved. So we study these old pollen grains from sediments. Sediments are basically mud at the bottom of the lakes that accumulates over time and this is one of the archives of nature. So we societies have archives with piling up documents. Nature has its own archives that we scientists can access and this is what we did and here you have some images of pollen grains. For instance, this here is the pollen grain of pine. So a ubiquitous plant in this part of Europe and here as well. And this way, studying what pollen grains you have in your samples of mud, you can actually reconstruct how the landscape looked like in the past. This is how a typical pollen diagram looks like. So we go from the bottom to the top. So from the past to the present, we can date these sediments using techniques such as radiocarbon dating and then we can look at the changing proportions of different groups or species of plants over time. And we can get an idea of how this landscape developed, changed and so on. This is the contribution of our friends from Rome who participated in this project. Alessia Mazzi and Lucrezia Mashi who actually counted these grains with microscope. She spent several weeks, if not months, doing that and here is what we learned. These were the big surprises. So let's start from this one. This is directly related to the tax register that I showed you. So we discovered that Turkish nomads who were, as I said, everywhere in the Balkans for hundreds of years, they came 200 years earlier than the documents say. So around 1411 AD, the landscape around the lake was suddenly dominated really within one human generation. We have this resolution. We are able to be that detailed, but we see how this landscape changed from generation to generation. We see it every 20 years. So we see that within 20 years, it was suddenly dominated by barley cultivation. So a grain typical for nomads, not for sale, really for your own subsistence and pasture animals. We see a number of plants related to grazing. We see also fungi, so mushrooms kind of like organisms that live on the instruments of pasture animals. So this also ends up in this mud at the bottom of the lake. So we see this eruption of pastoral activity of barley cultivation that only lasted one human generation. We were actually thinking, this is a mistake. Lucrezia counted everything again in this sample. She checked her notes because this was like an explosion and then implosion, not visible again. Apparently what happened was that a large, the first group of nomads, really huge, probably dozen thousand people, came to this place and they stayed there for one generation and then they spread across the region. And the lake is located actually on one of the main historical roads in this part of Europe, so a military road. So it's not surprising that this happened. And actually this seems to confirm oral histories, traditional stories that were told in this area 300 years later and were written down by this famous traveler. Now during the remaining minute or two, let's move to an even greater surprise that there was a phase of stateless, anarchic society, nomad society of sorts in this part of Greece after the fall of Rome. So what you would normally imagine, I studied the fall of Rome from the ecological point of view for 15 years or so, and what you would normally imagine when the Roman power collapses and it collapses at different points in time in Italy and like let's say it's a process that takes 200 years. But you can always see this point when the Roman agriculture disappears, declines and there is reforestation. And we have this moment when the Roman agriculture disappears almost completely due to plague, climate change and warfare, but you don't get reforestation, you don't get more forests, but actually we get less forests very quickly and we get a lot of plants related to pastoral activities. So it means that the Roman population retreated, died, basically joined the pastoralists, joined the nomads and a completely different lifestyle was an operation in this area. Yes, the landscape was dominated by pasture animals even in the high mountain areas and this was a complete shift from how the Romans farmed mostly the lowlands for several hundred years. We have hardly any information and historical sources in the texts written at the time. The only thing we have that kind of agrees and points to who was there is that a group of Bulgarian, Turkish, Slavic nomads, it's not clear, they ambushed one Byzantine emperor in this area around 700 years, but now it seems that basically there was a local society that didn't want any emperor to be around, yes? And what happens with that is very interesting. So this nomad phase ends when the successor of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, so this is like the part of the Roman Empire that survived in Anatolia to this Turkey and then it again conquered several regions of the Mediterranean, including Greece. So they come relatively early, around 800, 850, and this is where really reforestation happens. So it's a paradox, yes? Not when the previous empire falls, but only when the next one comes, these people basically don't want to stay or they were forced to become peasants somewhere close to military centers and to produce grain for the army and the big city, the capital of Constantinople. So it's a fascinating case that could only be detected with the geoscientific methods to supplement history and archaeology and to show these phenomena, these societies that are very difficult to grasp, but were a very important part of our heritage, basically stateless societies that had alternative and rather sustainable ways of living. Thank you. Very much. We will now move to Gaul through a Mahindy and just a couple of moments to change presentation slides up. Very fast. Thank you very much. Yes. My presentation is about ancient aqueduct carbonate deposits and how they form inside these Roman aqueducts and what we do to study them. We see here one very typical example from Germany. You see buried Roman aqueduct channel and this is the cross-section of the same channel. It's called masonry channel and by the side of the channel with yellow and at the bottom also with yellow, you can see this thick calcium carbonate deposition due to water hardness. Today you have it also in your tap water. We have it in Germany in mines, also in Istanbul, I know. Many places they have these carbonate deposits due to water hardness, but this is from Roman time. You see Roman-made aqueduct channel with the mortar and calcium carbonate deposition with very visible lamination by the side. I also show you in detail. The most important feature of it is, of course, it is laminated and these laminar couplets, we believe they are annual layers and we also try to do some stable oxygen and carbon isotope analysis by the side of some other geochemistry in order to understand if there is a annual layering. If there is a annual layering, you can count these annual layers and you can estimate the use of the aqueduct. How long the aqueduct was active to rotation of an aqueduct. Oxygen isotopes with red, they show their higher values during winter and carbon isotopes, they show their higher values during summer, in particular in the east end Mediterranean where the climate is very bimodal. Now the question of ours is, of course, to understand how did the Romans manage to supply to their cities with water for centuries, was that out of their very solid structure that are still standing today, like this one, Pondegar Bridge, or was it out of maintenance repairs and other works that they undertook during the active years of these aqueducts. And we believe this is, of course, the result of both. They are very solid structures, but it is also the result of well-maintenances that they did for centuries. And I show you the examples of how maintenance can be captured in calcium carbonate deposits. My first example is from the Byzantine capital of Constantinople, which was supplied by the longest aqueduct of the ancient world. This was as long as 426 kilometer, which you see the fourth century line was here, and during the fifth century, they extended all the way until here, and it reached up to this 426 kilometer of length. But it is not only that, not only this is famous of this site, it is also one of the longest supplied aqueduct to an ancient city with 700 years. When we look at the calcium carbonate deposits, with stable oxygen and carbon isotope analysis, we were only able to see 27 years of aqueducts, active years. The rest was cleaned, obviously. And of course, if you study such a long aqueduct, you then wonder how people, they managed to clean such a long distance aqueduct, what kind of trick they use. And very important question, social question, how the population of Constantinople at this time waited for these maintenances that they can finally receive back their permanent water supply? How they managed? We think maybe they did not have to do much because there was always continuous water supply. How? Because there is a 50 kilometer long double channel along this 426 kilometer. Here you see it also in the field. 4th century line is here on top. 5th century channel is below it. And this was built in this way and they tried to accommodate both lines in order to supply the city permanent water and other line was closed for maintenances, for repair work. This is our suggestion. This is our conclusion for this site, but we are not the first who suggests this for Constantinople, yes, but this was already suggested in Rome. As you see, number of aqueducts, they were also on top of each other and they also suggested here, the reason was the same. One line was supplying to the city with water, other lines they were under maintenances. Now I take you to another part of the empire which is not as famous as Constantinople, but it is famous because of all these maintenance races, people they left in place in the carbonate deposits. It's very surprising to us to see so many human activities. They are real tool marks, everything is visible. At the same time, we have, for instance, two water interruptions, two times water interruptions. They had no water for two times and they replastered the Iraq, they repaired the Iraq, because they still needed water for their city. We can see these levels with these replastering material. We also see at the bottom, maintenance races, institute maintenance races and also at the bottom, upstream maintenance races with fragmentary material, all captured in this calcium carbonate body. We can study them. Here is an impressive picture of the power of stabilizer tops where we were able to count 88 years of the active years of the Aquarec and we just plotted at the bottom. I show you the cleaning surfaces and where they correspond in the stabilizer tops. We just wanted to estimate the frequency of maintenance, how often they cleaned, they maintained their Aquarec channel because we have annual signal, we can count years in between. During the first 57 years, very prosperous time of Dibona, every one to five years they cleaned the Iraq, but after two times water interruption, they were about to give up and only two times of repair, maintenance, but then the site was abandoned and we can follow all these maintenance here in these carbonate deposits and we believe this is relevant to social economic conditions of this city. What happened? They had more resources to maintain their Aquarec and later period they didn't have that much money and the site was finally abandoned because population was also not there. What else we see? We see, we hope to see here, we also see again cleaning episodes where they correspond in the stabilizatopic profile. We didn't see any break in the cycles, profile of the stabilizatops, which mean to us for maintenance for repairs, any work they did not spend more than a month because we believe more than a month of break we can see in stabilizatopic profile which we did see in Barbagal water mill complex in France. This Aquarec was not an urban Aquarec, supplying city or a drinking water but it was for a mill complex which was not working continuously but was working with shifts, with intervals and they gave breaks and those breaks in the activities of mill complex can be seen here in these truncations of the stable isotopes. We don't see them here in Kaur. There is no break, there is no interruption. What we also see, according to stabilizatopic results again, the maintenance of the cleaning episodes, they correspond to spring, they correspond to winter, they correspond to autumn when they had plenty of water in the area, right? It was quite a high precipitated time of the year and they did maintenance around that time but they have never done any maintenance during summer, wise enough because at that time people needed the most water for their activities and this is what we can say from these two examples about ancient water management and human activities in these water supplies. I thank you for listening. Thank you very much. Next we will hear from John Janssen. Just give us a couple of moments to change the presentation slides. Okay, when stars explode, what we call supernovae like this one shown here, the explosion sets off streams of high energy particles across the universe, mainly protons and alpha particles that eventually after millions of years reaches here on Earth. These cosmic rays pass through our bodies, they pass through almost everything around us and they penetrate a few meters into the ground where they interact with atoms in soil and rock and this produces new isotopes, what we call cosmogenic nuclides in tiny but measurable quantities. Now, two of these isotopes which I've shown here, beryllium-10 and aluminium-26 are especially useful because we know the rates of production of these nuclides. We know the rates of decay, they are radioactive and this makes them a very useful dating tool for understanding the history of the Earth over the past five million years or so. Now, two sets of findings I'll share with you today. Firstly, in a paper published just last month, we report the earliest human presence in Europe at around 1.4 million years ago, a site known as Coral Level in Western Ukraine. And second, we've dated the presence of people in the Siberian Arctic around 400,000 years ago at a site known as Dering Uriak. Now, this site, the second study, dramatically revises our understanding of when humans reached high latitudes. And please note this one is not yet here reviewed and so our findings are still up for debate and discussion with our fellow travelers. At the bottom here, I've included a link to an essay published in the conversation which spells out our research methods and approach in simple terms. So, who were these people? Well, no fossils have been found at either site so we can't be sure exactly who these early pioneers were but the stone tools they left behind are amongst the most primitive, what we call mode one and mode two and similar tools have been found at the oldest sites of human occupation worldwide. Now, these tools are clearly too old and too primitive to be the work of either modern humans, Homo sapiens or Neanderthals. It's most likely these people were some variety of Homo erectus, one of our most successful ancestors who appeared around about 2 million years ago. This is how Coral Level might fit into the puzzle. This map outlines a selection of the oldest securely dated sites in Europe and illustrates one interpretation of people first emerging from Africa into the Levant and Western Asia around about 2.5 million years ago and then sweeping from east to west perhaps via the Danube River Valley and the Pannonian plain. And as you can see from these ages, Coral Level appears to fill the gap between Dominici in the Caucasus and the East there at around 1.8 million years ago and sites that are somewhat younger in Southwest Europe. And at the second site, Deering, we find humans very far north, very much earlier than previously thought. Now, nothing older than about 45,000 years ago has been reported from a range of Arctic sites closer to the Arctic Ocean. And we see two dimensions to this. Firstly, once out of Africa, around about 2.5 million years, say, humans moved eastward remarkably quickly. People were already at Shang Shen, as you can see there on the map, on the Lus Plateau by around 2.1 million and they'd reached Java in the tropical Southeast Asia by around 1.5 million years ago. Now, by this time humans were colonizing vast areas of mid to low latitude Eurasia and exploiting habitats as diverse as temperate grasslands and tropical rainforests. But then it took another million years or more, quite a bit more, for people to move as far north as Deering. And this seems consistent to us with Jared Diamond's faster along latitude theory, the idea that dispersal by humans is assisted by following climate gradients. And the other point to note here is that while, of course, there were still around 2,000 kilometers from the Bering Strait, it remains possible that people crossed into North America well before the earliest, widely accepted timing, which at this point is still around about 14,000 years ago. Now, I should add there's not yet any genomic support for this early colonization idea. So it seems that if any very early groups did cross into North America, they failed to leave a genetic trace. In other words, they must have gone extinct. So what could have motivated these intrepid people to migrate into the Chile Arctic around 400,000 years ago? Here's one explanation. Of course, Earth's climate is always fluctuating and we think humans exploited a time of extraordinary warmth in the Arctic during what we call superintegrational stage 11. That's this gray band shown in the plot there. And as shown by the green spike in the biological productivity in the Arctic, there was really no better time in the past one million years to do so. And this timing is also very interesting for another reason. 400,000 years ago coincides with the suggested split in the Neanderthal and Denisovan lineages. The Denisovans are yet another kind of archaic human. And it's been shown by others that there probably exists a super archaic species known not from fossils, but from DNA found in the sediments, the basal sediments of the Denisopa cave in the Altai. So I said before that we don't really know who these people were, but there is an intriguing possibility that the deering migrants were actually a group of archaic humans predating the Denisovans, whose ancestry we only know thanks to work on the Denisovan genome. So this is our team of clever people. My expertise is the dynamics of rivers and glaciers and understanding how climate and tectonics alter Earth's surface through time. In other words, that's geomorphology. More information about me can be gained from that website there with my research group as well. And if you have any specific questions about other aspects of our research, then I'll be very happy to refer you on to the experts listed here. Thank you. Thank you very much. We will now move on to our final speaker, Robert Piatrowski. Give us a couple of minutes just to switch the slides. Thank you. My presentation is about relationship between erratic boulders from Northern Poland, Northern Germany, and human. And this is a very important project and multidisciplinary project about relationship and interaction between human, between abiotic elements of landscape in the past and the contemporary time. Okay, in this slide, we show photos with typical geomorphological theaters in the young glacial area. Young glacial area format as a result of the last glaciation in which glacial forms are well preserved. For example, okay, oh, it's here. Moraine, okay. Moraine hills, ribbon lakes, and erratic boulders. And erratic boulders, this is a topic of my presentation and my project. And human has tried always understand the world around the landscape, the elements of landscape, the form of landscape, and therefore interpreted natural phenomena from the mythological perspective or in 19th century in beliefs perspective. And the narratives believes about elements of landscape, elements of young glacial form. Correlation between the natural environment and cultural expressions were continuous, although variable over time. Local narratives tied the emergents of specific geomorphological forms and hydrographic theaters to supernatural forces. In traditional cultures, geocides we with, for example, erratic boulders implicated imaginaries and narratives aim at interpreting their provenance and ontological as well as axiological status. The interpretative of natural landscape theaters merged with the folk beliefs. In folk narratives, during dating from the 19th and the 21st, first half 20th centuries about erratic boulders, one finds of beliefs, motives relating to the interaction between humans and erratic boulders. Erratic boulders were attributed supernatural origins. It's not natural, only supernatural origins, supernatural beings. To the 19 believed to large stones brought by a giant or a devil or witches. Many of them call it devil stone or giant stone onto which stone or dwarf stone. And the next slide, we can see pictures from 19th century with a devil, both erratic boulders. Boulders of large size and the specific shape were of most interest. Some of these were to be used to destroy various building. For example, castles, churches and houses and so very important water mills and wind mills. According to some narratives, which is very interesting, the boulders were bought by giants or devils from the North Europe, especially from areas of Sweden, of Norway, generally from the North, from across the Baltic Sea in one legend from the 19th century from Alfred Haas. We found, Darek and me, found that the motive of an erratic boulders being brought by a giant who passed through the frozen Baltic Sea. And this is very interesting example because this is an example of the grassroots knowledge, local knowledge or geological intuition of our ancestors. And these are very important narratives that we will want to look at more closely during our research. In the next slide, we show erratic boulders with anthropogenic traces. The valuation and interpretation of erratic boulders has been gradually influenced by alchins of traces found of their surface. Many of the boulders show natural glacial theaters as well as anthropogenic traces. For example, from the production of millstones or quernstones. They have been interpreted as holes left by the devil's claws or the fingers of giants or marks left by the striking of the devil's whip. This is a very interesting cultural expression. Human gives meaning not only to the natural forms, characteristic of the erratic boulders. He reads and reinterprets the scenes left by other people. For example, boulders with marks left by attempts to smash cut were so often thought to be the trace of a devil's chain with which the devil had bound the stone with moving it from one place to other place. And this is next level, this history because we can see the large erratic boulders from Poland and from Germany in the down in this slide. This is erratic boulders from Reagan Island and many erratic boulders have marks indicating that millstones and querns were made from them. One of the most interesting examples in Poland is the boulder now known as the Krabat stones. And however, in the 19 and early 20th centuries it was known devil's stone. In the case of this boulder, there was also misinterpretation of the cuts and the holes in it. Local historians have concluded that it is an ancient pagan altar, this is not true because this is a typical traces from the millstone production. For some reasons, however, this was abundant. Significantly, even semi-finished millstones are sometimes called devil's stones. For example, one of these semi-finished stones in the slide from region near of the Dysk is a devil's stones and the local people believes devilish implication of these elements of landscape. And next level, life of the stones, erratic boulders is church walls because in Northern Poland, in Mezovian and East Germany are a lot of churches with millstones or semi-millstones founded in the walls. We don't know what this practice known, we don't know what is this, what is a symbol, this practice. Maybe it's a symbol of sacrifice, maybe it's a symbol of sun. Sun, I don't know, now I don't know. And in the one of the church in Rostock, near of the Berlin, is a millstone who's through devil when millers refuge in the church and angry devils through this millstone in the church wall. And for centuries erratic boulders have performed an important function in local cultures. They have been surrounded by mystery. Attempts have been made to define their origin by attributing supernatural characteristics to them. They have been protected. This can be called the phenomenon of unconscious protection of geocultural heritage. We know of examples of legends that mentions the protection of boulder by a local community because of the belief that the devil dwarves in it or it was of a sacred stone. Today, giant erratic boulders are a valuable emblem and brand for a region or a locality. We know of examples where after a giant boulder was excavated from a gravel pit, the local community adopted erratic boulders as an imported geotourism attraction because erratic boulders, it's not only geological heritage and it's not only cultural heritage. This is a new geocultural values. Geocultural, they have a geocultural meaning. And in my opinion, this is a very, very important. Why? Because in addition to their obvious cultural function, such sites have the potential to promote information of the geoenvironment, information on glaciation, rock-forming, minerals. Their place of origin or exogenic process should be displayed at such sites. This will not only contribute to the geotouristic attractiveness of the site, but also support geological and geographical education. And thank you very much for attention. Thank you very much. So now we will move to the question and answer portion of today's press conference, just as a note for all of our journalists and other attendees joining online. If you would like to ask a question, all you need to do is either raise your hand in the Zoom room and I will see it here or you can post your question in the chat and I will read it for you. If you are in the room, then please just raise your hand and I will bring the microphone to you so that you can give the question to our speakers. So does anybody have any questions to start us off? Hi, thank you all for the presentations. Can I ask about the early humans and in particular, why do you think they might have got across to North America? What makes you think that that site didn't seem particularly close to the bearing straight to me? Yeah, thank you for your question. Well, of course we have no evidence that they did cross. It's simply a speculation that given that they were relatively close to the bearing straight and at a time which we know was followed by low sea level stands in which there would have been a vast amount of area exposed above sea level. So a vast plain of Beringia, so-called Beringia. Then it stands to reason that there may have been some migration into those regions and perhaps crossing into North America simply out of, well, what drives humans to move now? I mean, curiosity, resource, chasing resources and so on. So as I said, there's no genomic evidence for supporting that change or that migration but given that the established ages now are, there is one age that is somewhat older than the others around 120,000 years ago but that's still being debated aside in Western United States. But the widely accepted age is 14,000, our age is 400,000, it's very, very much older. And so of course, after taking the measurements we granted ourselves a little bit of speculative leeway. Thank you. Any additional questions either in the room or online? One more, yes. Can I just ask a follow-up question to that? So if there was a sort of super warm period presumably that would have caused a rise in sea levels. So would there been a land bridge across to the North America at that time? Would that not have been submerged? And when it got colder, then that land bridge would have been present. You're exactly right. During the warm periods, sea level is, well where it is now, we are currently in an interglacial and it's during the cold periods where the sea level drops. So of course, we're not suggesting they jumped from during your act to across the Bering Strait. They may have migrated more closely and so they would have been within striking distance of crossing the strait during low sea level stands. And also of course, there is the possibility of crossing sea ice, because of course that clogs up with sea ice in the wet season, in the cold seasons. And that's another quite plausible possibility. May I ask another question? You talked about the dating, you didn't really say anything about what you dated and what the evidence for that extreme old age was. Well, we use a method cosmogenic nuclear burial dating which involves measuring concentrations of beryllium 10 and aluminium 26 and it's the ratio change of those two isotopes that gives us the age. And we dated the sediment that was associated with the deposition of those tools that I showed in the two pictures. So in both cases, we were dating the time those tools were abandoned on a riverbed through time. Okay, any additional questions for our panelists? Just check online, nope. Okay, so I think with that, we will call the end of this press conference today. Just as a reminder, the recording of this press conference will be added to EGU's YouTube channel later on today for a secondary viewing if anybody wishes to do that. If you want to contact any of our panelists for additional discussion from any of our press conferences this week, please reach out to the EGU's press center or you can check our media webpage which is at media.egu.eu. As I said before, this is the fifth of our seven press conferences that are being held this week. Our next press conference is actually on tomorrow and that is at 2 p.m. tomorrow afternoon CEST which is press conference number six, preparing for our hot and windy future. With that, all that remains to say is if I could ask everyone in the room to join me in thanking all of our panelists for their excellent presentations today. Thank you very much.