 So I'm going to move to a very different question about migration here. What we want to do This is a joint paper with with a lot of people But basically what we want to do is to understand the impact of a program that regularized migrants And we want to understand what was the impact of that that program on their lives That's basically what we want to do and we all know that Economic migration and especially forced migration economic migration is quite persistent and forced migration is on the rise And it's becoming really an important economic issue, but mostly a political issue So we want to understand how to better integrate migrants into the societies into the destination countries where they arrive And when we see what's happening with force-wise displacement What we see is that there is really a huge increase in in forced displacement in forced migration It has been driven by three countries mostly Before Colombia was there but only with internal displacement and what we see is that it has a Increased significantly it has more than double during the last two decades We have had three recent crisis the Ukrainian one Which is which is ongoing at the moment about six million people that have been forced to migrate from Ukrainian to European countries we have the Syrian crisis and we have the Venezuelan crisis, which is really large with respect to the to these hemisphere And one of the main questions is how do we address the arrival of force migrants in the destination countries? And one of the main questions specifically is whether migrants are allowed to work whether when they arrive to their destination countries Whether they are allowed to work and this is a hugely difficult political issue Because some people basically some politicians this say that we should not allow migrants to work Countries should not allow force migrants to work because they are going to compete with locals And they are going to decrease the conditions labor outcomes for locals However migrants always have to work and they have to generate income So in many cases oftentimes migrants to work and basically what they do is that they compete with the vulnerable populations in the destination countries So what we want to understand is what happens in a country where migrants are allowed to work and are Provided rights very similar to the citizens of the country where in which they arrive There is already some literature Nation literature on how to support refugees most of this literature Focuses on humanitarian assistance focuses on cash transfers. What is the impact of providing cash transfers to force migrants? Shelter programs and there is some some new work on mental health problems But there is little evidence on how to integrate migrants into society such that they can be self-reliant Such that they can generate their own income and integrate into the society Something that is very important for you to bear in mind is that migrants force migrants seldom return to their to their origin Constries most stay in the country where they arrive. It's about like 3% when you look at the statistics So what we do in this paper as I say is that we want to understand whether Providing an amnesty to migrants a regularization program to migrants helps them become more self-reliant This is basically what we do and Basically, what we do is that we look at a very large amnesty program that was implemented here in Colombia in 2018 and it was an amnesty that provided the legal right to work in any sector And it provided access to social services and it provided free mobility to migrants within the countries You may think that this is obvious But in many countries this is not the case for refugees and we identify it in many dimensions We identify it for well-being consumption labor income We identify it for health status and we identify. What is the impact on other? outcomes a labor outcomes There is some evidence already on this topic But most of the literature is undeveloped countries and what is the impact of this amnesty program on labor markets for the Natives so what is the effect for the local population to provide the legal right to work to irregular migrants There is also some literature showing what is the impact on local crime rates something similar to what Marike was presenting and there are two papers that Estimate also the effect of these amnesty programs on Native workers on developing countries one for Jordan and another one for Colombia one that we did with Daniela Jara and Sandra Rosso What is the contribution of our paper the first contribution is that really we are studying this in a developing country Where labor markets are a have high informality rates So migrants can work regardless of what is the regulation in the country and this is actually what happens We are also looking at comprehensive life outcomes We are not just focusing on labor markets But we are trying to understand other effects and something that is very important is that we are taking advantage of this program That was implemented here in Colombia It was large but most importantly for the empirical strategy for identifying in the causal effects is that The program was sudden and it was nobody knew about it So there are no anticipation effects here, which is very important for identifying the effect a Fourth thing about this program is that there was no eligibility criteria So for example in Jordan there was a similar program But migrants could only work in sectors where your dyneans were not working so much No, so here they can work wherever they want and Then we provide you a little bit with the context of this program is called permiso especial the permanencia and It's mostly and only for Venezuelan migrants So as many of you know Venezuela has gone through a very difficult crisis economic political and social crisis During the last decade and this has prompted the migration of a large number of Venezuelans At the moment is about five million. This is the largest Outlaw of migrants in this hemisphere during the last 50 years So it's quite large and what has been very different from other types of migrations is that it has been to The region to many countries in the regions mostly to Colombia because it's the first country where they can arrive So migration costs are much lower So right now we have in Colombia about one point seven and two million Venezuelan migrants Most of these migrants and at that moment were irregular migrants. They were either They were irregular either because they illegally cross the frontier, which is not difficult really and Because they over or because they overstate their visa How did the program work and this is very important for the empirical strategy and for the identification strategy In 2018 we had that I say about 1.7 million Venezuelan migrants and the government of Colombia Decided to do a census of irregular migrants. The purpose of the census was not to regularize them The purpose of the census was to collect information on their characteristics and to understand where they were located and what were their needs So they arrived and they started to do the census in April and they did it through June 8th Starting and it was quite difficult because they had to identify where the migrants were located. They were irregular They had a lot of fears of being Sensists and so here you have an important thing is that there is some selection there No, because migrants were fearful of registering because maybe they could be deported However, the census registered about 400,000 households 64 and then what is very important for the program in august to the Colombian government decided to Provide regularization to all the migrants that were sent in the census. This was a surprise. Nobody knew So the president of Colombia says that all the people that were in the in the ramp Could were eligible for regularization and the regularization process was quite easy They just could had to go online and provide some information and they were given a number Saying that they were regularized about 64 percent of them regularized and basically what we're doing is that we are a Leveraging these surprise factor a at least to control for anticipation effects What did the program included it was a program for two years a Legal migratory status as I say work permit whatever they wanted to work Provided that they were overwork of course, but they could work in any sector in any city of the country And they had access to health education and childcare services and to government transfers during COVID that was very important And it was like an ID so they could a registering private services very importantly. They could Had a bank account and they could use financial products The government of Colombia in 2001 did a more a bigger one And they were regularized all the migrants that are here in Colombia right now This means regularizing about two million people for ten years. No, but we are just concentrating on this one How do we design the study? This is important when we arrive to do the study The program as I say was a surprise. So we did not have a baseline We were not able to collect information on how were the migrants before the migrant the program started So that's a big challenge that we have We did a survey Actually right now. It's a panel survey. We have two ways of the survey today I'm just going to concentrate on the first wave of the survey and the main challenge was to find a Control group of irregular migrants to be able to compare it with the treatment group For the eligible migrants we had access to the RAM sensors. We have Contact information for all the migrants who were able to get a random sample of all the RAM migrants And then apply the survey to those RAM migrants and for the control group We asked referrals from the RAM people and also Databases from refugee organizations. We had a list and again. We did a random sample of that and we applied the survey very importantly We were careful to have migrants that were Had arrived in the same time period Because we didn't want to have a time effects there So that all the migrants that we have are from January 17th till 2008 December 2018 So we did before doing the survey we inquired when they had arrived Because you were not registering RAM. That's the only reasons where you were and that may happen And that's very important Raquel because that may happen because you arrived there after the RAM was closed Or because you basically did not register and that's important and we are going to exploit those two things We did a survey collection in all these cities. We have this the survey is representative of big cities and small cities When we were going to do the survey for COVID it started so we had to do it by phone It was quite a challenge, but we were able to do the survey about two thousand and twenty-two hundred families 50-50 between a Ram and non-RAM is Between regularized and non-regularized one or Ram and non-RAM because we have intention to treat as well We did also qualitative surveys because we really wanted to understand the process through which they decided to register in RAM and The process through which they decided to a Register to become eligible because that's an important Self-selection that we have there and so the survey contains a lot of questions about The previous conditions before all that happens so that such that we could control for that so that's important What is the empirical strategy? What we're doing is That we are basically exploiting the time the timeline So what we're going to do is our regression discontinuity design where we are going to compare migrants just right before a run closed and Right after run closed. No, so the the big the main difference is that these migrants arrived after Rambas closed so they could not register in run. Basically, that's the difference that we are going to exploit We also do intention to treat because we have a sample of households that register in RAM But never register aspect but here I'm just going to present you their results for the Empirical for their regression discontinuity. This is the timeline I already talked a little bit about the timeline So this is the regression discontinuity that we do. It's a fuzzy RDD and what we do is as I say exploit this date when the RAM closes So all that people that arrived after run closed They were not able to register because run was already closed so they could not basically register Apply to the pet program and the ones that arrived before they could okay So we're going to compare these these two This is again exactly the same and here I'm just showing you the validity of the local continuity assumption and we see that we have We have some problems with just one variable But so far we see that there is a local continuity here Let me show you the results and what we find Which we really like it is that the effect of the program is quite sizable, especially for well-being Let me show you They increases in we have an index for well-being an index for access to state services and to private services as well for health outcomes And for other labor outcomes. So what we find is that the effect is really large for Consumption for well-being they have a huge increase in consumption about 48 percent We have an increase in labor income about 22 percent and more employment Something that is very important is that access to state services really increased No, so here in Colombia for for low-income people to be able to get access to state services They have to register first is in Cisben, which is a mean targeted test And what we find is that that increases by 56 percentage points Therefore they have access to subsidized health care, which is about one third percentage points at 26 percentage points Sorry, they have access to transfer programs. And when we look at COVID for example, they were better able to cope with COVID But I'm not showing you this here We have an increase in health outcomes, but mostly in physical health outcomes We don't see an effect on mental health and what is very interesting is that the increase in labor income It's not necessarily because they were more formal formalization increased But we have a problem with the estimate. It's quite noisy. It's it's very imprecise So what we do know is that some the labor conditions improve regardless of whether they were formal or informal We believe that they are bargaining power increase. No I'm not going to go show you the detail results, but this is basically what we find No, we find more consumption more labor income. The effect of consumption is really large employment We have an important effect on self-reported health status and access to state services and Financial products and when we look at the at the second wave, this is increasing this continues to increase Something again that it's important is that you see here We don't see an effect on formal jobs But as I say that the coefficient is quite imprecise because the number of observations that we have for the regression discontinuity is not large We do a lot of robustness tests I'm not going to go into that but the results hold when we do intention to treat instead of that We find the very very similar results and also as I said we did a qualitative Survey so I just end with these two testimonies The first one is one of the testimonies that we think is explaining the largest the the large effect on Income and unemployment labor income and what we think is that these migrants were being exploited when they are Irregular there are exploited. They don't have any bargaining power at all when they stop being irregular They have much more by bargaining power in the labor market So even though they are not formal their wages increase another important thing That we are exploring at the moment is that they feel much more integrated into society And they feel much more integrated into society not only because they trust more for example Colombia but most mostly because they they trust more to to approach government institutions For example police and report more crimes and we're finding something with that So again, I'm not going to repeat what we find and what we believe it's important is that first when we Look at what happened with the local labor markets We don't find any effect of pep on formal labor markets We do it for the locals in another paper with money behind and Sandra and what we believe it's important about this This program is that when you provide Refugees of forced migrants with way to integrate into society They can become self-reliant Instead of just doing humanitarian programs which is mostly the policies that are used to address the needs of Forced migrants and I end here. Thank you very much