 Good morning. See, we began talking about variations in a speech sound last week and we saw that speech sounds take different forms in different contexts. There are variants. So, speech sounds occur exactly alike in all the different contexts. The context may be social, the speaker may be happy, unhappy, excited, at ease, angry, running, depressed, whatever. You know, speech sounds vary. You know, your mood, as many people say, unless you are a great actor, shows in your voice. So, there are variations. There are variations because of phonological context also. Social variations are still by and large unpredictable. We are not in a position to write rules saying when you are angry, how you will speak. Or when we are in love, how we will speak. We do not know. We do not know enough so that we can write rules. But regarding phonological context, we know something. We know when in a particular language, a voiceless sound occurs between two voiced sounds. It is likely to be voiced. Phonological context is predictable. And phonological phenomena are predictable in a large measure with reference to the phonological context. If you know the sound that is going to come before, if you know the sound that is going to come after, then you can almost confidently say in a particular language what shape, what features will that sound take. Actually, in context, in use when you are speaking, when you are talking to someone, listening to someone, when language is in use, only a limited number of things can happen to speech sounds. These are either a sound can be deleted in isolation, in the dictionary. The word may have four sounds, one, two, three, four, or five sounds. But in use, it is possible one of the sounds may be deleted, elided. You may not hear it. I will give you an example soon. Or it is possible that in isolation, you have only four sounds in the dictionary. The word has been given only three or four or five, only limited number of sounds. But in use, some extra sounds get in. You may have insertion of sounds. Or you know, some sounds may double up. One sound may become double or double sound may become single. They may lose a feature or two. They may gain a feature or two. Actually, only two things happen. It is either loss of features or it is gain of features. These things, please write, are known as phonological phenomena. Today, we will talk about some of, not all, we are doing an introductory course. I hope some of you feel interested in the study of language and do higher courses. And then you will see that there is much more that is yet to be learned. And there is a lot that can be done with whatever knowledge we have in this field. But basically, phonological phenomena include these four things. Either loss or gain of sounds or loss or gain of some features. An entire sound may be deleted. An entire sound may be inserted. Or some feature of a sound. A voiceless sound may become voiced. A voiced sound may become voiceless. Some of these things can happen. A back sound can become a front sound. A front sound can become a back sound. A sound produced with open jaws may be produced with closed jaws. A sound produced with rounded lips may be produced with a spread lips. Some changes, loss or gain of features may happen. Or loss or gain of entire sounds may happen. These are phonological phenomena. Are they predictable? Can we write algorithms and our computer can say, now here this sound will be deleted. Now here another new sound will come. Are these things possible? And the claim today is yes. These phenomena are predictable. Let us look at some examples. Elysian of sounds. You know call it deletion. Call it elision. You know in literature you will find both the words. There is a minor difference but not a very significant one. E-L-I-D-E, allied, comes when you are running, when you are in your natural position then you might take one or two steps extra and some part of the ground may not be touched. So from allied we get elision. Or from delete we get deletion. Basically the effect is the same. Maybe the process is slightly different. So one phonological phenomenon singular is phenomenon, plural is phenomenon. One phonological phenomenon is loss of sound. Now if you look at the spelling on the left hand column and look at the pronunciation of these words in some varieties of English. Actually in India a large number of us in India speak A-V-A-I-L-A-B-L-E as available. This sound, this A-I-L-E-L-A-B-L-E is by what happens to it? When available is pronounced as available what happens to it? It is lost in use. We still recognize the word. You see that is the power of mind. You know that some insignificant variations, some loss of sound. You know if in a piece of information that contains 100 features, even if 10 are lost, even if 20 are lost, mind has enough to go by. You still have 80 features. And this word is recognized in the community of these speakers. This word is pronounced as available. What happens? This is lost. In a standard English, this is available. There are some other things happen, other kinds of deletion happen. If you do a course in spoken English, if you do a course in the phonology of English and we offer those courses as well, you might see that these processes, loss and gain of sounds, loss and gain of features are not exclusive to any one language. These processes like other natural processes like hate and cold, like life and death, like aging or you know otherwise happens with everyone. But their local form may change. Their local color may change. All of us have nose. All of us have teeth. All of us have eyes, hair and skin. But in some countries, skin may be dark or black. In some countries or communities or some people may have fair skin or colored skin or some people may have dark hair. Some people may have curly hair. These are local phenomena. These are there for particular reasons. We do not know why. We do not yet know enough why some communities have certain kinds of appearance. Maybe next generation or your generation will know about that or coming generations will know about that. Similarly, these phenomena, loss and gain of sounds, what are the phenomena? Can you please repeat? Loss and gain of sounds or loss and gain of features. Only these four. They happen with nearly every language. But they may not happen to the same world. They may not happen in the same place. They may not happen at the same speed. Local manifestations, local occurrence may change. Local occurrence may differ. So similarly in this variety, this is Indian English, a large number of people who speak quote unquote a variety of English called Indian English. When you pronounce available as available, what happens? This vowel, together this makes one vowel A, a V, this is lost or look at this other word. In standard English it is biology, but in India we pronounce this as biology. What happens? We get rid of this vowel O or in standard English, this is develop. But how do you pronounce it in India? Develop. What happens? Which vowel is lost? The second vowel from left is lost, is elided. We still recognize the word. As I told you, the mind, if you get 100% data that is called clear speech, good as a manager, as a leader, as a user, you should speak as clearly as possible. But in natural speech, in natural language, we do not always speak very carefully. We do not speak, always speak very dramatically. We may be in a hurry, we may be quarreling, we may be happy, lots of words may be deleted, lots of words may be repeated, lots of words may not be heard, some words may be overheard. All kinds of things happen, but mind recognizes these words, as I told you, because mind knows what is significant, what is insignificant, mind also knows what pattern can there be for which word. So, in this word for instance develop. The second vowel from left is lost. Look at the next word, government. What happens? An entire syllable is lost. A-R is lost. We in India don't say government, many of us. You can't generalize about India. India is such a vast country with such a vast number of groups of people that anything that happens anywhere in the world also happens in India. India has the coldest place, the hottest place, the wettest place, the driest place. We have best speakers of English in India. We have almost business speakers of English in India. We have all kinds of people. But in one variety, okay, this word government, suppose if it is pronounced as government or government, what's happening? One entire syllable, you know, this entire cluster of letters, this entire cluster of letters, A-R-N, that is E-R-N has disappeared, okay. Look at the next word, machinery. Many of us in India pronounce it as machinery. It's not machinery, but we pronounce it as machinery. When we pronounce it as machinery, some of us, what happens, what is lost? This E is lost, that I, you know, in a spelling it is I, in pronunciation this is A, this A is lost. It is, it is elided, you know. Elision has occurred, deletion has occurred. Or look at this word, satellite. How do you pronounce it? Some of us in India pronounce it as satellite, okay, satellite. What happens? One vowel is deleted. There are two lessons here. Number one, any sound can be deleted, vowel or consonant. It is not the case that only vowels are deleted. It is not the case that only consonants are deleted, but now comes the beauty of literature. Look at the pattern, look at the pronunciation. This stroke indicates stress. Do you see a pattern? I will give you 60 seconds. Just look at it. This is where your analytical ability, this is where you, here, you know, this is where your training as scientist comes in play. Can you find a pattern? Can you see if there is a pattern? You may be wrong, it doesn't matter, but make a guess. Look at it hard. Look at it full 60 seconds. Look at it full 60 seconds with your eyes pouring on it, okay? And tell me if you see a pattern quite often, yes. That's it. Though there are examples when it following stress is also deleted in this case, correct? Do you agree? In this case, in this case, there are two or three words. But by your large, you know, you got the pattern. The pattern is a sound in the neighborhood of a stressed syllable. Don't write, okay? Try and see, you know. Try and train yourself as a scientist who looks at the nature and understands pattern, that nature behaves in a pattern. You know, people like Galileo, Copernicus looked at stars and found pattern. On certain nights, certain kinds of stars do not appear. Is it that we are moving or stars are moving? And then they wondered, okay? So science, you know, science does only one thing. Science does nothing. But science is the quest of truth by observation, by looking at the facts of life. Look at the facts of life and as your friend said, can you please say it again? I would like the camera to capture you, you know. Please. Would you like them to stand up or is it okay? It preceded by the stressed syllables before. Yeah, usually preceded or followed by, you know. They are in the neighborhood of, you know, and it's natural. If you have some strong, some very high peak in the mountain, then it is almost inevitable that a valley will follow. Do you agree? If there is a crest in the wave, then trough will follow. You know, nature goes for patterns of fall and rise, high and low, peaks and valleys, crests and troughs. You know, why does it do that? We don't understand. Why does it not have plateau entirely or valley entirely? We do not understand yet. We do not know enough. But look at the pattern. Let's go to another phenomenon. Change of features. Now, I have taken some data from Sanskrit. Even if you don't know Sanskrit, you will understand that this consonant, is it voiced or voiceless? Can you see the arrowhead? Yes or no, please? No, sir. Yes. Can you see the arrowhead? Yes, sir. But look at this consonant. This consonant called, is it voiced or voiceless? Voiceless. Voiceless. It is voiceless. You know, feel it. Just say, it's voiceless. Contrast it. Say, and say, you know, you have to train yourself. It's like music. Like, you know, musicians catch the slightest variation in the note of sound. How do they do that? They train themselves. You have to train yourself. So, this is voiceless. But here, it becomes voiced. So, what feature has changed? Please come on. What feature has changed? The feature of voicing has changed. It has taken a new feature. It has lost an old feature, voiceless, and taken a new feature, voiced. Similarly, look at this sound. Okay? In the second word, krita-ant. In Sanskrit, when they come together, they become kridant. Okay? Ta, which was voiceless, becomes voiced. Similarly, this is ch. This together makes ch, ch, like ch, ch, j, j. Okay? So, ch and ant together become ajanta, j. Or this mata, jor antar, mata plus antar, sorry. You know, mata coming before antar or coming immediately, you know, in the context of antar. Okay? This is short. This is short. But, or you can say this is central vovel. This is also central vovel. But what is this? A. You know, is it open or closed? Open. Open. So, a half-closed vovel or half-open vovel becomes fully open vovel. A short vovel becomes long vovel. It has changed or gained some feature in use. Look at this. Again, another example. This is vishaya, subject and antar. Again, half-open, half-open or short, short, you know. In all our languages, we have lagu and dirga. Sorry, harasva and dirga. Do you? Have you been taught Telugu? How many people know writing in Telugu? Have you been taught harasva and dirga vovels? Okay? In English, we have short and long. Don't call it short and long. Call it half-open-open. Okay? If you like. So, look at this feature in a vishaya and antar. This is half-open, this is half-open. But when they come together, this becomes... Give me the word. This becomes fully open. Okay? This is half-open. This is half-open. This is half-open. But when they come together, this becomes fully open. Two short vovels coming together, make long. What was half-open becomes open. Similarly, here, you know, Mahesh, with your permission. Okay? Maha. Okay? And e. You see, this is where vovel trapezium is useful. A is fully open. E is fully closed or nearly fully closed. Okay? So, when the two come together, what will happen? One will move down, the other will move up. In a good family, in a good group, compromises happen. In dictatorial and democratic groups, only one person decides. Everyone else says yes. Correct? So, here, you know, Maha. This a is open. E. This is closed. But what do you get? You get half-closed or half-open, you know, when they come together. Similarly, look at it here. Ghana and Ishe. You know, this is central. This is closed. This is half-open. This is closed. But when they come together, what do you get? Half-closed. Okay? A. So, these are phonological phenomena. You can, some features can change. Can you look at the context and tell me why short becomes long? Why closed becomes open? Why X becomes Y? Can you, can you look at, can you, you know, then we can better answer the question, if these things are predictable. Okay? Can you tell me why K becomes G? Make a guess. I'll give you 60 seconds. Think. You know, this is K, but it becomes G. Why does it become G? In Sanskrit, Dika plus Anta becomes Digantha. Why does it happen? But still... Yes. I mean, to still connect the word, but, you know, it's a lot of convenience. Quite truly. And all features don't change. Only some, but we are looking at the feature. We are not looking at the word at the moment. We are looking at a lower unit, a tiny unit. Can you tell, can you, you know, please think about it. Why does voiceless sound here become voiced? What is there in the phonological context? Yes. Sir, if a voiced, becoming voiceless is usually associated with the end of a word. The word has to continue. So, that is why I mean... Now, that may be one explanation, but a better explanation will be, this is voiced. Look at the fate of K. It comes between one voice, you know, are all vowels voiced? Yes. Yes or no? Yes. All vowels are voiced. And this one poor consonant, you know, this one poor consonant comes between a voiced sound and another? Voice. Voice sound. So, naturally, on both sides you have voicing and vocal cords do not get enough time to switch off. Okay? So, this also becomes voiced. Look at this. Can you tell me why it happens? Why ta changes to the... The same reason. It has, it is surrounded by voiced sounds. It has voiced sounds on both sides. Okay? So, usually, not always, it's not necessarily, you know. If you like, you can still have a voiceless sound between voiced sounds. But quite often in this language, in Sanskrit, in many other languages, it is the case that a voiceless sound can become a voiced sound when it comes between two voiced sounds. Same is the case with cha. You can almost write a rule. Can you write a rule? Can you try and write a rule? Why it becomes voiced? Why does a voiceless sound become voiced? Can you try? Write on your notebook and tell me. Can you raise your hand? One of you please. Or as many of you as you like. Can you raise your hands if you have written the rule? Okay. Mahesh, tell us. When a voiceless sound comes in between two voiced oval sounds, then it becomes voiced. Voiced. In this language, in Sanskrit, you know, you will have to say that. Otherwise, you know, it will become a universal rule. It is not universally true. But in a large number of languages, in Sanskrit in particular, it is quite often the case that a voiceless sound coming between voiced sounds becomes voiced. It can also happen the other way around. A voiced sound can become voiceless. Either, you know, before silence or between two voiceless sounds. Okay. Look at this case. This a coming before a, but changing into a. Can you think about it? Can you tell me why it changes to a? Can we write a rule? Too similar. It's half open, half open. Changes to full open. Or you can say short, short. Changes to long. Okay. Make a guess. Okay. Please raise your hand. Right. Please. Please raise your hand so that my friends behind camera can capture you. Very simple. Please. Come on. This is, you know. Right. Okay. Sarita. Would you like to stand up in our sitting? Okay. Please. What happens? No clue. No clue. So simple. So obvious. Like to? Yeah. When they come together. Same. Can you repeat yourself? Yeah. Same, right? Yeah. You know, there is long and there is short. This is short. Forget that. Just say two half years. You see, just describe what happens. One half open vowel. Coming before another half open vowel. Together makes an open vowel. A full open vowel. An open vowel. Okay. You know, you can write rules. You can say half open vowel. Changes to full open vowel. When it comes or before. Okay. Right. You know, these are predictable. That is why, you know, grammar books have been written. That is why pronunciation books are written. Okay. So, you know, these are the phenomena. You can acquire, you know, speech sounds can acquire a feature. Speech sounds can be completely lost, completely gained. Look at another. In some variety of English, in India and in some other countries as well, even in America, you know, in America also, in American English, quite often are, you know, this is pronounced alike. In American English, they are both pronounced as rider. Okay. But look at this variety of English. In some parts of India, some English words like uncle may be pronounced as uncle. Okay. Or simple as symbol. Temple as temple. Mantle as mantle. You know, then become predictable. Painter as pender. Rented as rendered. Wanted as wanted. What is happening? What is happening? Can you, can you, you know, what is changing? First look. What is changing? This ka changes to? Ga. Pa changes to? Ba. It is not that pa changes to ta or da. Okay. What is happening? Can you write a rule? Writer. Writer on your notebook. You know, it happens when it happens. X when Y. Okay. Can you write that? Can you write a rule? X changes to Y when? Okay. Do you understand? Are we together? Everybody please. Yes or no? Are we together? Yes sir. Okay. You know, you have to say, what happens? X changes to Y when? So what is X here? X here is ka. What does it change to? It changes to ga. When does it happen? Look at its context. And write the rule, please. Is this voiced or voiceless? This, I have written a spelling. Is it voiced or voiceless? Voiceless. Voiceless. Is this voiced or voiceless? Voiced. Voiced. So a voiceless sound changes to voice sound. When, look at its context. Is it voiced or voiceless? All nasal sounds are voiced. Is it voiced or voiceless? Voiceless. All vowels are voiced. Voiceless. So what happens? A voiceless sound changes to a voiced sound. When? When it comes between, when it is surrounded by, when it comes between? Voice sound. Can you write, tell the camera to remember this rule, please? He is speaking like, you know, you are speaking like a dead body. Even I can't hear you. I want the entire world to hear. I want them to believe that IIT girls get some food. Please speak to the camera, not to me. Voice sounds are surrounded by voiceless. Okay. Voiceless makes so rapidly. Okay. Voiceless sound is converted into voiced sound when it is, when it occurs between? Voice. Can you say the same thing to the camera, please? Not to me. Smile to the camera and tell it. Okay. Pick up. Are you fourth here guys or second or third here? Okay. When do you learn to speak? Well, tomorrow you have to lead your colleagues. Tomorrow you have to justify the salary of 200,000 rupees per month. How would you do that unless you speak? Somebody please, would you, would anyone else like to say what's the rule? Looking at the entire data? Come on, tell it. Tell the camera. But loud enough and clear enough. Voice less sound is converted to a voice, voice sound when surrounded by a voice sound. Correct. When it comes between. And that will explain the entire data here. Okay. The point I'm making is a large number of phonological phenomena, particularly those that are triggered by phonological context, not by social context. You know, some people may start suddenly stressing every syllable when they are angry. You know, pardon me, please, we will delete this. You know, this is when men have quarrels with their wives. Okay. Particularly in the dowry age. Okay. That is, that is an unusual situation. We cannot write rules about that. We cannot say when a B. Tech boy who takes dowry from his father-in-law, when he gets angry, then he speaks with a stress on every syllable. We cannot write those rules. We don't want to write those rules. We don't know enough. Okay. But phonological context says that when a voiceless sound occurs between two voice sounds, this happens. Okay. This is predictable. Look at another loss of sound. This is Hindi. Look at these data. What's happening? This is from Hindi or Sanskrit. Not so much Sanskrit, but Sanskrit words in Hindi. Okay. And you don't have to know Hindi. It's not that only those who know Hindi can write rules about Hindi grammar. The meaning is given. You know. Kamal. This vowel. Okay. This vowel is lost when Kamal changes to. Kamala. Kamala. When Vimal changes to. Vimala. When Dharak changes to. Dharaka. When Akkar changes to. Akra. When Pakar changes to. Pakra. When Namak changes to. Namkeen. Okay. When Lapak changes to. Lapak. A lot of subwords. What is happening? Why is this sound lost? Can you write? This is a little more difficult now. You have to look more carefully. You have to look at the surrounding. I'll give you full 90 seconds. Your time begins now. Okay. And write a rule on your notebook first. And then speak. What is happening? First describe the data. Let us first describe the data. What is happening? No. It's not voiced. Some sound is lost. There is no voice sound. No voiceless sound becomes voiced. Or no voice sound becomes voiceless. Yes? Is it visible to you from here? Wait a minute. I want the camera to catch you. Okay. Now come again. Please. Loud enough. Voiceless sounds are. Yeah. They are becoming the adverbs of the words that are given to you. No. You are missing two criteria. Voiceless is phonetics. Adverb is syntax. And there is nothing like voiceless. Voice is happening. It's very simple. You see this a. Look at this. This is a. This is lost. What happened to it? It is lost first. We'll describe something else later. Let's go, you know. In all sciences we describe phenomena one by one. Step by step. So, first let us describe loss. When is it lost? You see this a is lost in Kamala. This a is also lost in Vimala. So, what is happening? Okay. Short vowels are being lost when it is followed by another syllable. Another vowel. Okay. Another consonant vowel. Okay. When it occurs before the last consonant, it is there. But when last consonant accepts or takes, you see, this is the last consonant of the word. In all of these words, there is a consonant at the end. Can you see? Yes or no? Yes. Yes. And there is no vowel after the consonant, correct? But when that consonant takes another vowel and in this case a long vowel, then this is lost. So, it can be very simple rule. A short vowel is lost when a word final vowel or syllable appears. Do you agree? A short, you know, I am writing a crude rule. I am writing first approximation. We may refine it. But look at the phenomenon. A short vowel or we can say a half open vowel, okay, doesn't matter. Call it short open vowel or call it a half open vowel. Which half open vowel? Coming before the final consonant, last consonant of the word. Coming before the last consonant is lost. What happens is lost. When is it lost? When another vowel follows the last consonant, simple. When another vowel follows the last consonant, C is for consonant, okay. And that is across the board. That explains the entire data. The point I am making, ladies and gentlemen, give me your attention. Natural phenomena, including languages, changes there are predictable. We can write rules. We can have computer algorithms that can recognize, that can generate, you know, that sort of things. We said there can be loss of sound, gain of sound. We said there can be loss of features, gain of features. Look at the gain of sound, okay. In some varieties of English, actually in standard varieties of English, India and Pakistan, in standard varieties of British English, okay, pay attention please. I want you to train yourself into recognizing language variations, speech variations. In some varieties of, in standard varieties of British English, particularly, India and Pakistan can be pronounced as India and Pakistan. This r appears. You see the point? Our law and order can be pronounced as law and order. This r can, gets in, or high and low can be pronounced as higher and low, or near and far, can be pronounced as r is already there, okay. Far and near, r is already there. Let's explain this. Why does this r, law and order, where, why does this r get in, okay? Can you say what happens and when? You can say r is added between what? Between which two sounds? In vowels, or between two long vowels, when? When they both come in adjacent words. When they both come in adjacent words. You know, once again, phonological phenomena are by and large predictable, okay. In some varieties of English in India, we add sounds, an extra sound, you know. In Andhra, in Tamil Nadu, in Karnataka, Kerala, many people pronounce film as film, okay. You see, or against as against of Prince Charles or Charles, okay. What happens? They add an extra sound to break the cluster of two consonants, or in the north, you know. It can be pronounced as salate, or spray can be pronounced as sapray, or you know, many of my, many of my people in Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, they pronounced snow as a snow, station as a station. What's happening? They are again, you know, changing a difficult consonant cluster into an easy consonant cluster. We will talk about it when we talk about syllable based generalizations. The point I am making is, the point I am making is that in phonological context, these phenomena happen and these phenomena are predictable. Thank you. Have a good day.