 CHAPTER V THE FRENCH FIREFIGHTER The history of the Paris Fire Brigade is of exceptional interest and well-deserved study. Its early organization and manifold developments were contemporary with the principal change of thought and government in France, and to a certain degree echo the tendency of different forms of state control favored in that country during the past two centuries. In the year 1716 the city of Paris organized its first regularly constituted firefighting force. This consisted, so it is stated, of thirty-six manual engines with a personnel of forty to operate them. By 1785 the personnel had increased to three hundred, and in 1789 the first fire regulations were issued. The year 1807 saw the force placed under the command of the prefect of police, and the introduction of the brass helmet which is still worn by brigades of distinctly conservative tendencies, notably the London force. Thus whilst originally a civil organization, in 1811 it was turned into a military corps, and in 1867 it was advanced to the status of a regular regiment, commanded by a colonel and consisting of two battalions of five companies each. In this formation it remains today, with the slight difference that now each battalion numbers six companies, its official designation being Le Regiment des Sapour-Pompiers. By its constitution the Paris Fire Brigade is something more than a purely firefighting force. In times of disturbance or war it may be called upon for military duty, though it is difficult to see how the fire risks of Paris could be guarded were such a step ever taken. However though under the military authorities as far as recruiting, internal administration, discipline, promotion and punishment are concerned, for fire purposes it is placed under the direct orders of the prefect of police, whose wishes regarding all technical matters such as scientific training, fire mobilization and equipment are paramount. Add to this that the city of Paris is financially responsible for the entire expense of the regiment, and it will be seen that there are no less than three interested parties in the maintenance of this corps. Hence, in order to avoid confusion and friction there is a joint committee formed of members from these administrations which settles all questions involving its common interests. The present strength of the force consists of the colonel commanding, forty-eight officers, four medical officers, and one thousand eight hundred and three non-commissioned officers and men. Of the latter two hundred are sergeants, three hundred and sixteen are corporals, the balance of one thousand two hundred eighty-seven being rated as firemen. As a rule officers are recruited from ordinary infantry regiments entering as sub-lieutenants, but they are first obliged to pass a medical and technical examination before a special commission. If successful they then undergo a course of fire service instruction and are required to attend all important fires as spectators in order to familiarize themselves with the actual handling of apparatus. No doubt it is easy to be hyper-critical, but to the scientific firefighter this appears to introduce an element of weakness. The marine engineer officer does not learn his calling by watching the efforts of others any more than the surgeon is qualified to operate upon a patient because he has had the chance of observing the greatest masters of the knife. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that firefighting is a science which demands of its students that they should understand its complexities from A to Z, and this can never be accomplished by any amount of theoretical schooling. To this extent then it may be questioned whether the training of the officers serving in the Paris Fire Department is of the best for practical purposes. Non-commissioned officers who under the conscription law may elect to do their service with this corps are not required to pass the technical test should they wish to remain with the regiment. Senior non-commissioned officers rank as warrant officers and as a rule serve for twenty-five years, while corporals and firemen are limited to fifteen years' service then retiring with a pension. The regiment is recruited principally from artisans, builders, laborers, mechanics, and coachmen. The idea presumably being that most of the running repairs and a certain proportion of constructional work should be carried out by these men in the workshops of the brigade. Now this system is also open to comment. A fireman should be first and foremost a fireman. The last thing that should be made of him is a jack of all trades. His calling is of the most strenuous and when not actively engaged at fires he has plenty to do in seeing that his apparatus is in proper condition. To set him to construct the body of a departmental automobile or to repair a major defect in a pumping engine is to remove him from his proper sphere of operations, and since science has not yet solved the problem of keeping one man in two places at the same time the actual fighting units must be proportionately weakened. The pay of the Paris fireman, according to American ideas, is so small as to seem ludicrous, but it should be remembered that it is based upon the army scale, which in all European countries is framed upon as low a basis as possible. It commences roughly at thirty cents per diem, rising to forty-four cents should the fireman gain the rank of corporal during his three years under the conscription law. Otherwise the pay of those proposing to qualify for a pension ranges from two hundred seventy-five dollars to three hundred twenty-five dollars per annum. Free quarters are provided for the married and unmarried non-commissioned officers and men, as well as lights, fuel, and uniforms, but no messing is included. Regular firemen get thirty days leave annually, but conscriptionaires only fifteen, they're being short leave once a week for all ranks. It will be seen from an examination of the following table that the area of Paris has increased in the proportion of one to two point two six since eighteen forty-one, and that the number of fires is ten times as many as at that date. During the same period the strength of the brigade has only been doubled. Table Year eighteen forty-one, brigade strength eight hundred three, area of Paris thirteen point two six square miles, population nine hundred thirty-five thousand two hundred sixty, one fireman for each one thousand one hundred forty-five inhabitants, expenditure one hundred forty-six thousand seven hundred forty-five dollars, or twenty-nine thousand three hundred forty-nine pounds, number of fires two hundred three, one fire every forty-three hours. Eighteen fifty-seven, brigade strength eight hundred eighty-nine, area of Paris thirteen point two six square miles, population one million two hundred seventy-eight thousand seven hundred five, one fireman for each one thousand four hundred thirty-eight inhabitants, expenditure one hundred sixty-nine thousand three hundred eighty dollars, or thirty-three thousand eight hundred seventy-six pounds, number of fires two hundred ninety-eight, one fire every twenty-nine hours. Eighteen sixty, brigade strength one thousand two hundred eight, area of Paris thirty point two square miles, population one million five hundred thirty-seven thousand four hundred eighty-six, one fireman for each one thousand two hundred forty-one inhabitants, expenditure two hundred eight thousand four hundred ninety-five dollars, or forty-one thousand six hundred ninety-nine pounds, number of fires four hundred forty-five, one fire every nineteen hours. Eighteen sixty-seven, brigade strength one thousand four hundred ninety-eight, area of Paris thirty point two square miles, population one million eight hundred forty-eight thousand seventy-five, one fireman for each one thousand two hundred thirty-three inhabitants, expenditure two hundred ninety-five thousand five hundred twenty-five dollars, or fifty-nine thousand one hundred five pounds, number of fires six hundred ninety, one fire every twelve hours. Eighteen seventy-nine, brigade strength one thousand six hundred ninety, area of Paris thirty point two square miles, population two million one hundred twenty-six thousand two hundred thirty, one fireman for each one thousand two hundred fifty-eight inhabitants, expenditure three hundred sixty-four thousand six hundred twenty dollars, or seventy-two thousand nine hundred twenty-six pounds, number of fires eight hundred seventy-eight, or one fire every ten hours. Nineteen ten, brigade strength one thousand eight hundred three, area of Paris thirty point two square miles, population two million seven hundred sixty-three thousand three hundred ninety-three, one fireman for each one thousand five hundred thirty-two inhabitants, expenditure seven hundred twenty one thousand four hundred dollars, or one hundred forty-four thousand two hundred eighty pounds, number of fires two thousand thirty, one fire every four hours twenty minutes. The statistics in the last annual report show as stated above that the brigade attended two thousand thirty fires, exclusive of chimney fires which numbered one thousand five hundred fifty-four. They also rendered various additional services amounting in the aggregate to four hundred and forty-four calls. These last were exceptionally numerous during that year, owing to their being many cases in which assistance was given in connection with floods in Paris, work in which the Corps has always especially distinguished itself. Over and above these legitimate calls the department responded to no less than seven hundred and twenty-seven false alarms. Before going into a detailed description of the equipment and work of the brigade it may not be amiss to point out certain factors in connection with its constitution which will enable the lay reader the better to appreciate the vital part this force plays in fire protection throughout the whole of France. Owing to the number of young men who elect to do their military service in its ranks, and who at the end of their allotted time pass out into civil life, there are all over France many serving in rural and provincial forces who have thus acquired a considerable amount of useful experience, and whose influence must be advantageous in the development of local fire control. In fact it is worthy of notice that the Paris Fire Force is regarded by the authorities as something more than a municipal institution, rather it is intended to meet national requirements. Thus, as a rule, a squad of sailors from the French Navy is attached for an instructional course of six weeks, as it is felt that opportunity should be given to all in government employ to acquaint themselves with the rudiments of this science. That the constitution of the Paris Fire Department is clumsy cannot be denied, since it is under military, police, and municipal control. Yet the introduction of military influence may perhaps be regarded as beneficial. A certain prestige attaches to any form of military control, and in this instance has caused this force to be looked upon as something in the nature of a corps d'élite. Broadly speaking, whilst a brigade which is essentially a municipal institution may develop a tendency towards loss of status and lack of discipline in its truest form, owing to political, party, or labor influence, yet it seems the most logical form of organization. But at the same time fire control is a question of such serious moment that some form of governmental ascendancy, in the hands of a competent central authority, appears to be beneficial, if not absolutely necessary. At any rate, the basic structure of a modern fire department should be molded along semi-military lines, for even as on a battlefield, success or failure, victory or defeat, may be largely determined by the unquestioning obedience of all ranks to their superior officers. So when fighting as crafty an enemy as fire, it requires not only the skill of the commander, but also the confidence and prompt compliance with orders on the part of subordinates. This can only be engendered by a quasi-military training, such as it has ever been the ambition of New York fire chiefs to inculcate into the force under their command. There are no doubt many excellent fire brigades controlled wholly by municipalities, but there are also many bad and inefficient ones, which apparently satisfy ignorant and incompetent local authorities. Fire prevention in Paris itself is practically looked upon as an administrative precautionary measure initiated and applied by the prefect of police, after consultation with the officers of the Paris Fire Brigade, with the municipal technical officers, and with such other parties as have some concern in the matter. Amongst the general public, the architectural, engineering or surveying professions, and even in governmental circles, little or no interest is manifested in the question. There is in fact no body either in Paris or France, framed along the lines of the British Fire Prevention Committee, which is representative of technical opinion, and is formed with the express intention of formulating precautionary rules. Of course, after some great disaster, an irresponsible clamour for precautionary measures must needs arise, and in this particular Paris is no wit different from New York or London. Fanned by a sensation-loving daily press, blame is scattered broadcast, quite irrespective of equity, and the simple necessities of the situation are swamped by the volume of hysterical and irrational vapourings poured forth by the ignorant. And, be it added, like most press sensations, the matter is speedily forgotten, and nothing permanent eventuates. Such agitation arose after the disaster at the Paris Charity Bazaar, after the burning of the Iroquois Theatre in Chicago, after the destruction of the Exeter Theatre in England. But curiously enough, until very recently, it never resulted in any organised effort on the part of members of the public possessing technical knowledge to combine and assist the authorities on the subject. Thus for practical purposes it will be seen that the Paris Prefect of Police embodies all the initiative, which should be provided by a French Bureau of Fire Control. At the same time, however, he is possessed of two great advantages, which enable him to use his position of amiable autocracy to the fullest extent—namely, the funds and the personnel, wherewith to investigate matters, to undertake tests, and to enforce by means of administrative order such safeguards as he may see fit to demand. But equally, the lack of public interest in fire prevention places him in a most unenviable predicament, in as much as having no private scientific society or public commission to take the initiative and demand certain safeguards, he is necessarily compelled to act on his own discretion. Hence, were it not that Monsieur Lapine, the world renowned ex-chief of the Paris Police, was a man combining the greatest strength of character with an iron tenacity of will, it is no exaggeration to say that that city would be one of the worst equipped of the great modern capitals as far as fire control is concerned. In this connection must also be noted the names of Monsieur Lapine's most able and competent colleagues, Colonel Vuicquant and Lieutenant Colonel Cordier. For effective measures of fire protection, Paris is divided into twenty-four zones, the size of which is governed by the density of the population. In each of these zones is a fire station with which the fire alarms are connected. Each station is equipped with not less than three firefighting appliances, a motor-propelled steam-pump, long ladder, and hose-wagon. In addition, the four stations situated in the most populous sections are provided with an electromobile first aid machine fitted with a small electrically driven pump. These machines are intended to deal with a fire in its first stages, much in the same way as the chemical engines common to American fire practice. The number of men on duty at each station consists of three non-commissioned officers and twenty-six corporals and firemen. In the event of a call, the fire station notified immediately sends out one or two appliances, and at the same time telephones the next nearest station to the scene of the outbreak. While stations help each other in sending on appliances to calls, they do not as a rule deplete their apparatus to a dangerous degree. The pump and ladder are always employed for the defense of the zone belonging to a particular station, and are always the first upon the scene. Fifteen men form the crew of the motor engines, which also carry three hose reels, with one thousand nine hundred sixty-eight feet of large hose, five hundred twenty-five feet of small hose, smoke helmet and air bottles, life-saving lines and a ventilator. These machines are of forty-five to sixty horsepower, and have a centrifugal pump which can deliver six hundred sixty gallons a minute. Horse-drawn steamers carry one thousand five hundred seventy-five feet of hose, short ladders, and all the necessary gear for coupling up with hydrants. Whether shipped on motor or horse vehicles, the long ladder can be extended to a height of sixty-five and one-half feet. Motor traction is being rapidly introduced, and at the present moment there are, in the brigade, forty-nine automobiles, of which eight are electrically propelled. In addition, seventy-six horses are hired by contract on the understanding that they are entirely at the disposal of the department. The contractor furnishes fodder and bedding for the horses, as well as the necessary harness and stable gear, for which he receives eighty-three cents per horse per diem. The training of these animals is good, though being of Flemish breed they are too heavy for the dashing work accomplished by many other fire brigades. Paris possesses seven reservoirs, which supply its fire-hydrants, the installation of which was commenced in 1872. These latter now number seven thousand seven hundred twenty-six, and when the system is complete they will be about a hundred yards apart. Their nozzle pressure varies from fifteen to seventy-five pounds according to the height of the reservoirs, and usually the average pressure is sufficient for working purposes. Besides these there are six hundred and ninety-one hydrants belonging to public buildings or private firms. The brigade can be called, firstly, by five hundred and twenty-one alarm boxes situated in the public streets, secondly, by four hundred and ninety-five private fire alarms in theatres, public buildings, and so forth, and thirdly, by the use of the police or public telephones. All such alarms are of practically the same pattern. They consist of a square box upon a pedestal, instructions for operating being printed upon the glass front of the apparatus. On breaking this glass the door automatically flies open, making a contact which rings a bell in the fire station. Contained within the box is a telephone transmitter for the purpose of giving the station the address of the fire. When the message is understood a buzzer is sounded to signify that fact. The disadvantage of this system is obvious in as much as there is no check upon false alarms, while in moments of great emergency the individual is only too inclined to bungle everything in the nature of a telephone message. In the event of no message being received the appliances proceed to the neighbourhood of the fire-box, great attention is paid to the physique of the men forming the corps, and in addition to the squad and company drill which constitutes part of their military training, considerable time is devoted to gymnastics. It may be open to question whether the practice of what, for want of a better term, be called acrobatic exercises, really improves the stamina in a most advantageous manner, yet a feat such as the following probably inspires a certain amount of self-confidence. The apparatus employed is called the piano. It consists of a vertical timber structure about fourteen feet high, comprising a number of horizontal boards separated by a groove to imitate the rustic grooving in classical architecture. The men ascend this with their fingers alone, jumping each board with their two hands simultaneously. These grooves which form their only support are about one-and-a-half inches deep. Incidentally last year the men of the brigade won the regimental cup for gymnastics open to the whole French army. Using a fuller account of the apparatus in use in the Paris Fire Department it need only be said that with the exception of some unimportant particulars the appliances are much the same as those employed in the New York Fire Department, a detailed description of which will be found in the chapter under that heading. It only remains to be emphasized in instituting comparisons that the utility of apparatus depends solely upon its suitability to its environment, and the narrow streets of Paris offer an insuperable obstacle to the giant appliances in use elsewhere. The Paris Fire Brigade having found that considerable delay was caused by the summoning of a building contractor when dangerous walls, etc., required attention, and that the risk thus incurred by the men during the delay preceding his arrival was considerable, decided to provide itself with its own gear for dealing with dangerous structures. This consists of eight horse-traps, two comprising a unit, and manned by fifteen men. Those employed in this particular squad are all carpenters or builders by profession, and are thus supposed to be in a position to render first aid to any building in peril of collapse with facility and expedition. Frankly, this feature in the brigade is one also of doubtful value. True, the numbers allocated for this particular service are not excessive, but in dealing with problems of a similar nature in New York the author has found that in such cases of emergency it was more satisfactory to count upon the services of building contractors of known standing than to rely upon a small subdivision of the fire-core itself, which from the nature of the case cannot possibly possess the scientific and architectural skill necessary to cope with such a vast and intricate question as shoring up of a wall in momentary danger of collapse. Wrecking crews are employed in the New York Fire Department, but their duties are very much narrower than those of their French colleagues. An account of a fire in Paris, drawn from a report of the British Fire Prevention Committee's journal, may not be without interest to readers, lay and professional alike. The site of the outbreak was a linoleum factory situated in the Rue de Voy, a long narrow street approached by thoroughfares at either end and backed on one side by tenement buildings and on the other by a railway. Obviously the chief risk was that the fire might spread to the tenements, and hence the main attack had to be made from either end. Seven motor pumps were brought into operation, supplying thirteen jets, while two more were worked from a hydrant. The number of officers and men employed numbered 135. It only remains to be said that the disposition of the apparatus, as evidenced by the plan reproduced below, was admirable, the officers in charge having clearly and quickly grasped the danger zone, and it is satisfactory to note that the blaze was under control within ninety minutes of the arrival of the first engine upon the scene. Owing to the part played by the prefect of police in the control of the Paris Fire Brigade, it is natural that some form of cooperation should exist between the two departments. In fact it is not too much to say that herein lies a connection of considerable value. For ordinary small fires, the mobilizing of the police necessary to keep the ground is dealt with by the provisional police superintendent in whose area the fire occurs, and he can also draw assistance from neighbouring divisions. In the case of large fires, police headquarters sends immediate aid from its reserves, including, if necessary, republican guards and strong cyclist sections. The principle of having a number of police ready for immediate turnout on bicycles to any point in the city is both expeditious and advantageous, and merits more than passing attention from the authorities of every large municipality. Upon cooperation between the police and fire departments much depends, and it is only by constantly playing into each other's hands that the former can rightly judge how far away a crowd must be kept for their own safety's sake, and in order that the efforts of the firemen may be unhindered by the ill-judged incursions of the curious. For fire protection along the front of the River Sen there is a special organization known as the Brigade Fluvial or the River Police. This consists of a chief inspector, four assistants, and thirty-six policemen, twelve of whom are pilots and mechanics. Not only does this force serve as auxiliary to the fire department, but it is trained for emergency work in times of flood as well as acting as police in the usually accepted sense of the word. Needless to say, owing to the tortuous narrowness of the Sen, the apparatus in use is small, but it is serviceable enough for its purpose, and the men in the corps are, in addition, expert lifesavers of drowning persons. It is a curious anomaly of this command that its hours of duty are only from seven a.m. till ten p.m., and hence it is practically unavailable for any night emergency. The authorities who are responsible for this incongruous state of affairs must evidently possess a touching confidence in the designs of Le Bon Dieu. As to the ordinary ideas of the firefighter, the hours of most danger are precisely those when it is to be supposed the officers and men of Le Brigade Fluvial are wrapped in slumber. Salvage work in Paris is carried on by a distinct section of the fire department, and is in no way reliant upon any outside or independent assistance. This whole question of the interdependence of the fire department upon a private salvage corps and vice versa receives careful consideration in another section of this volume, but nonetheless it may be broadly stated that there are advantages attaching to an undivided control of both these departments, and since Paris was the first to adopt such a measure, a short account of its equipment for that purpose may not be without interest. The Paris Salvage Service commenced operations in 1904, and is intended to limit as far as possible the damage caused by water or fire to all kinds of property. Since salvage duties form part of the ordinary duties of the brigade, instruction in this special branch is given to all ranks. Special appliances for the purpose are placed in six stations, each of which has a certain number of zones to protect, but the appliances of one area may be sent to another according to the severity of the fire. Besides this, every one of the twenty-four motor apparatuses of the department carries some salvage gear, so that a proportion of this work can be accomplished without the presence of the special cars. Each salvage car is manned by one non-commissioned officer, two corporals, four firemen, and a driver. On arrival at a fire the man in charge of the appliance takes his orders from the senior officer of the firefighting force, who employs his services as he thinks best. Thus, in case of emergency, the men of the salvage corps can assist in the firework, or the men employed in the firework can assist in the salvage. The salvage units comprise six motor-cars with a wide radius of action, each carrying a crew of eight men, the whole being under the charge of a superior officer, and each carrying no less than fifty ordinary covers, fifteen special covers, one special scaling ladder, one step ladder, one set of draining gear, and a large supply of mops, brooms, swabs, sponges, trays, small covers, ropes, lamps, axes, carpenters, tools, bags of sawdust, telephone fittings, and so on. There is also a reserve car, and in addition to this every motor-pump carries two covers and other minor salvage gear. Towards this comprehensive service the insurance companies pay forty thousand dollars per annum, and in addition nominate two of their officials to do service if called upon in a technical or consultative capacity. Probably the Paris Fire Department is the only one in the world which can bring so effective a plant to the seat of operations so quickly and with so little delay. And broadly speaking it is without doubt an advantage to have at hand so large and competent a force upon which to draw at a moment's notice. The personnel of both fire brigades and salvage corps is, after all, only human, and it is impossible always to avoid some friction between the two bodies when each has a different object in view and is naturally anxious to look after the best interests of their respective paymasters. It is in this direction that Paris benefits. Generally speaking the Parisian theatres can scarcely be said to make any special claim for excellence in either architectural construction or equipment, but in this respect they differ little from those of other countries which except in rare cases seldom come up to the standard of modern requirements. In the case of Paris the majority of the buildings are old and the proprietors have vested interests necessarily rendering any action on the part of the public authorities a difficult and thankless undertaking. Nevertheless a systematic effort may be observed on all sides to ameliorate the dangerous features in these old buildings and to ensure safety of the audiences as far as is practicable under existing conditions. The primary features of the protective system observed in Paris appear to be very similar to those in Vogue in New York and consist in the installation of a fire-resisting curtain, large ventilator openings, absence of rubbish, the non-inflammable treatment of scenery, constant inspection, and lastly the organization of fire watches composed of regular firemen who shortly before every performance make the rounds and test the fire appliances, remaining until the conclusion of the entertainment when the appliances are once more put under trial. Also, as in New York, plans for new theaters are inspected and reported upon by the fire department. All of this is most satisfactory and is evidence that the French authorities are keenly aware of the terrible fire risks in theaters where even a false alarm may result in a hideous and unnecessary loss of life. But with the National Opera House of Paris another tale has to be told, and it is literally amazing that its equipment and construction should be such as to make even the most uninstructed in the peril of fire pause and hesitate. Granted that the foundations of this historic pile were laid as far back as 1863, yet owing to the Franco-Prussian War the building was not really completed till some twelve years later, the opening taking place in 1875. There has always been an idea that buildings of a period antecedent to our own day of rush and hurry were more substantial and of better construction than the Jerry-built shacks of the modern real estate agent who hides the worthlessness of his wares under liberal coatings of guilt in gingerbread. Yet, judging from the Paris Opera House, the architects concerned in its erection must have counted fire as one of the negligible happenings of fate. No less a sum than seven million five hundred thousand dollars was lavished upon the building, but apparently the imagination of the gentlemen responsible for its erection only carried them as far as architectural magnificence, and they were blind to such matters of minor importance as the safety of the audience and artists. But again, perhaps it is too much to expect that an architect of the sixties in the last century should have realized that panic bolts to doors, rounded corners, and continuous handrails form safeguards for human life. One might legitimately expect, however, that such precautions would have presented themselves to the minds of the present day directors. To quote from the report of the British Fire Prevention Committee issued after their visit to Paris, the Opera House stage is generally considered to be one of the most dangerous, if not the most dangerous in Europe. It is mainly of wood construction, supported in parts by unprotected cast iron columns. It is a mass of old fashioned windlesses, pulley gear, and a veritable forest of rope. Little can be said beyond that it should be entirely gutted, as was the case with the Royal Opera House Covent Garden, and that a modern stage should be fitted in its place. The safeguards, however carefully devised, are discounted by the highly inflammable and complex character of the stage equipment. It must be clearly understood that this excerpt is given with no idea of disparaging one of the great art centres of the modern world, but only with the object of bringing home to the ordinary citizen the fact that with all the history of fire disaster behind them for their guidance, those responsible for the safety of the public, unintentionally no doubt even today regard the subject apparently as not one of serious import. Further comment is surely needless. Suffice it to say that judging from official reports concerning the fire equipment of the Paris Opera House, it is ludicrous were it not possessed of its tragic side. Its structural height is nominally thirteen storeys, the fire protection of which is served by three mains, the high pressure being naturally for the protection of the upper part of the building. Considering that the maximum pressure off the mains is only seventy pounds, it is difficult to see how even the tenth storey could be protected, let alone the thirteenth. The subject of fire protection in department stores, on the other hand, has for some time past been receiving the careful consideration of the Paris Fire Bureau, and in this connection the modus operandi of the great Bon Marchet stores offers an example worthy of imitation by many similar establishments in big American towns. This firm maintains a private fire brigade of forty one men who do nothing else except watch and fire duty. One third of this number sleep on the premises, while to assist them is a special staff of eighteen night watchmen. A portion of the regular sales staff also is instructed in fire duties, being especially trained to deal with customers and others in the case of a fire panic. The store possesses its own water supply, and sprinklers are fitted in all parts of the building considered to be particularly dangerous. Great care is also taken over the collection of waste paper and rubbish generally. It is gathered into sacks and removed to a fire resistant room in the basement, which is lighted from without, is supplied with sprinklers, and possesses a self-closing iron door. In addition, all packing material is stored in a special apartment and is only issued as required. The elevator shafts are taken above the roof, the upper part of the shaft being glazed with thin glass, the idea being that in the event of fire the heat and smoke should go well clear of the building. Finally smoke helmets are kept ready for the slightest emergency, each being fitted with a portable electric bulb and a supply of oxygen sufficient to last ninety minutes. At different periods during the last century, notably in eighteen fifty-one and eighteen fifty-eight, efforts were made by the government of the time to obtain some form of provincial fire service on national lines, whereby the responsibility of the different local authorities might be centralized. These efforts met with a scant success, although a number of communes formed fire brigades as sections of the National Civic Guard. The first modern decree on the organization of French fire brigades was signed by Marshall McMahon in eighteen seventy-five, and comprised thirty-five articles setting out the requirements and conditions of service in great detail. Of course it was in itself only applicable to the day of the manual engine, but even now it can well rank as a model to all countries as a code which nationalizes a necessary service, which is all too easily allowed to remain unrecognized where the independence of local authorities has become a veritable fetish regardless of the best interests of the community. The following are some of the features of the Decree of November nineteen-o-three, which today governs the formation of communal fire brigades in France, and marks a stage in the development of the Old Decree of seventy-five. Fire brigades are primarily formed to do fire service, but may also be called upon to assist in the case of any serious accident or catastrophe. If they so desire, and with the permission of the Home Secretary, they may be armed, but under those circumstances they are not allowed to carry their rifles outside the limits of their own district. Fire brigades can only be formed with the sanction of the President of the Department, after proof has been given that sufficient appliances exist for the brigade to man, and that means are available for the purchase of uniforms and the general upkeep of the force in an efficient condition for a period of at least fifteen years. The general organization is along strictly military lines, men being enlisted of their own free will for a period of not less than five years. Officers are appointed by the President of the Republic on the advice of the Prefect of the District or the Mayor of the Commune. Their rank is ex-officiel military. But the chief point in this connection is the effort which has been made by the various provincial fire departments towards a common federation of all brigades, the standardization, so to say, of the system as a whole. The objects of this federation are to improve the French fire service generally, to conduct assemblies, competitions and exhibitions with a view to encouraging the ambition of various local units, and to the creation of a species of local esprit décor. Incidentally, also, comprised in the scheme, is a plan for benefiting those who are injured in the course of duty, and of assisting their wives, widows, or families. At the present time this federation consists of over 104,000 members, and there is no reason why, if managed along normal lines and those of least resistance, that is, in conjunction with the governmental authorities, this federation might not prove of inestimable benefit to all concerned. The competitions conducted are of peculiar value, as they do not consist of events which are merely a matter of athletic celerity, but are rather founded upon a semi-scientific basis. By this means successful brigades may be regarded as not only occupying the position of merit allotted to them in any particular competition, but as embodying thereby their actual standing in the ranks of the provincial fire department in France as a whole. There are also theoretical examinations for the officers, which are taken separately and of a graduated character, there being five groups, A to E, admission to the higher group having to be preceded by the obtaining of honours in the next lower group. In fact, it is not too much to say that this federation, although in need of modernization as regards some of its details, is generally beneficial in the highest degree to the French provincial fire service, and by engendering enthusiasm and a spirit of emulation, has done much to advance the cause of firefighting in that country. Monsieur Guignet, its president, has admittedly a difficult body to control. Political influences and administrative problems of importance have to be constantly overcome and adjusted with that diplomacy which alone can bring success to any organization of such magnitude. And though from time to time setbacks occur and attempts are made to discredit the work accomplished, the fact remains that the very genesis of such a union is a hopeful pre-sage for the future. Were it possible to train the members of all fire departments in a country along national lines in a similar manner to that in which the apparatus of various cities in the United States has been standardized, then without a doubt a great step would have been taken forward in the science of fire control? Admittedly, of course, in a vast country like the United States, such a scheme as impossible of realization, but in smaller areas, such as England and other European countries, the idea would certainly appear to merit consideration. The question of fire control in Germany has received the most careful consideration on the part of the authorities, from the emperor and empress downwards. This has resulted in the centralization of all executive authority, which in itself possesses many advantages. In Berlin all matters relating to building construction, factory inspection, the storage of inflammable material, and other details of a similar nature are under the supervision of the Berlin Royal Police, with which the fire brigade is incorporated. The advantages of this system are obvious. Thus, a factory inspector, a superior officer of the fire department, a superior officer of the sanitary police, and the police building surveyor frequently work together, and confusion as to responsibility or the overlapping of various forms of control is eliminated. Now, admittedly, this system is excellent. But since prevention is better than cure, great efforts are made to instill into the minds of children at an early age the necessity of exercising great care in the use of matches, lamps, candles, and open lights. Towards this end special courses are arranged in the public schools, whereby boys and girls are taught by fable, picture, or simple instruction, the dangers inseparable from imprudence in the use of the above mentioned articles. These simple educational methods are having a most marked effect on the whole of the coming generation in Germany, and fatalities from burns amongst young people have decreased, while their parents also have grown more cautious. Naturally the full results of this teaching will not be felt for another ten years when its effect upon the incidence of fires should become marked. Building construction in Germany generally is of a solid and substantial nature, both as regards business and residential premises, the interiors being subject to the inspection of the local building control department, risks such as those commonly met with in tenement houses are avoided. The centralization of fire control has also had important results as regards the high standard of safety existing in most German theatres. This supervision is responsible for the introduction of the specially heavy fire curtain in general use, and for the installation of a system of stage lighting which does away with the more dangerous features of the older methods. In this connection it may be noted that the theatre owners find the police restrictions in no way irksome, even though that most unpopular official the censor is also a member of the department. One final feature of the Prussian brigade's merits attention. The duty for firemen is so arranged that after forty-eight hours at a fire station they are entitled to twenty-four hours rest at home. During their period on watch starting at eight in the morning they are actively employed till ten-thirty p.m., when, unless summoned to a fire, they may sleep until six a.m. On that day they are relieved from two p.m. to four p.m. in order that they may take part in the night watch without undue fatigue. There are no married or single permanent quarters for the men at the stations, this practice being similar to that in Vogue in New York. As regards the merits or otherwise of this system, much may be written and the subject is fully dealt with in a later chapter. From this brief resume it will be gathered that German fire control is planned on severely official lines, which to some degree no doubt stifles initiative on the part of the individual, but at the same time makes for that mechanical precision which is responsible for the fire risks being the lowest in the world. The Berlin fire brigade was organized in 1851 and modernized in 1875 when the system of firefighting units was first brought into operation. Each unit comprised a trap, a manual, and a water tank. Such was the organization at that time that within ten minutes of a fire being reported it was nominally possible to obtain the assistance of such a unit at any point throughout the city. As the brigade stands today it consists of a headquarters and five divisions, each division controlling five units. This force has to protect roughly an area of 15,000 acres with 27,800 buildings and a population of 2,123,000 souls. The officers of the department consist of one chief, two deputy chiefs, five divisional officers, fifteen assistant divisional officers in charge of the units, and two adjutants. By way of comparison Berlin has twenty-five officers to a brigade of 1,040 of all ranks, Vienna seven to four hundred sixty-eight, Hamburg twelve to five hundred twelve, London five to one thousand four hundred, and New York sixty-three to four thousand nine hundred ninety-six. Berlin authorities state that it should be borne in mind that it is not only the superior officer's management of the brigade and his greater technical education, but his general influence over the policy of fire prevention, his skilled assistance in the supervision and inspection of buildings, and the prestige which is conferred thereby upon fire control, which gives the department the standing it deserves as a highly important economic feature in municipal and national life. Such recognition from so highly organized a body as the Berlin municipality makes the writer hopeful that before long the status of the genus Fireman will cease to be regarded as less important than that of the soldier or sailor in the service of his country. The policy of the Berlin fire department, as might be expected, has been towards the adoption of mechanical means of transport, and at the present moment most of the units are equipped with automobile appliances. Chief amongst these may be noticed a number of eighty foot extension ladders, chemical engines, and steam pumps. There are also electrically propelled breakdown cars for dealing with dangerous structures. The loose gear carried is of the most extensive character, the men having special instruction in the use of smoke helmets, their familiarity in the employment of the same being second to none in the world. A feature is made of what may be termed fire tactics, or the topography of districts in the municipal area, enabling officers and men to fight fires to the best advantage. To this end a handbook is supplied, specially printed, in order to be visible in a bad light, giving a tabular list of every thoroughfare and every hydrant or source of water supply in the city. But this compendium goes a step further, and in respect to particularly dangerous risks shows the most advantageous position to be occupied by individual engines, in the event of the apparatus designated being at work elsewhere its place is taken by its relief. Great attention is accorded to questions of fire prevention by the officers of the brigade, and systematic inspections are favored, which are carried out by the brigade independently of or in conjunction with the Building Act Department, Factories Department, or other sections of the police administration. The amount of inspection work done by the superior officers of the brigade in the last few years has been enormous, but its effect has also been very considerable in reducing the causes of fires. This supervision includes theaters and public buildings, factories, warehouses, department stores, hospitals, lunatic asylums, and all buildings subject to special risks such as electrical powerhouses and tanks for the storage of petrol and other explosives. Those desiring to join the corps as officers must satisfy the authorities that they are physically sound, financially stable, and possessed of first-class higher school certificates and military papers. They are then eligible to become ensigns, but in order to obtain commissions as officers they must then satisfy authorities that they have passed the final examination as architects or civil engineers at a royal technical college or taken the scientific courses at either a naval or military engineering academy. Further they must have been either commissioned officers in the army or navy, or at least hold rank in the reserve. In addition they are required to place their financial position clearly before the chief officer, to undertake not to marry without the chief's consent until they have been in the brigade at least one year, and to show that they have not only satisfactorily passed the ensigns course in the Berlin brigade, but also that of an ensign in at least one other brigade. Candidates must also possess a thorough grounding in electrical work, and have a knowledge of the principles attending first aid. Finally they must be of good family. From these details it will be seen that officers in the great German fire brigades must be men of exceptional ability. In fact that the profession is practically closed except to those who holding commissions in the army or navy reserve are in private life architects or civil engineers or belong to the engineering or artillery branches of the army or to the torpedo or gunnery branches of the navy. It seems superfluous to state that such credentials imply the acme of hard work and the height of scientific efficiency. Yet the writer must be forgiven for hazarding the statement that the man trained in the university of hard knocks, and who has gained his advancement from the ranks by shown ability to meet the emergencies of his calling, is in every way his equal for all practical purposes. The chief principles employed in fighting fires may be briefly summarized thus, fight the flames at close quarters, always have a man in reserve on each branch armed with a lifeline and an axe for emergencies, and make use of all apparatus obtainable irrespective of immediate necessity. Comment upon these tactics is deferred till later in this article. It is, however, strictly enjoined that senior officers should not expose themselves to any unnecessary danger and should not under any circumstances penetrate to the heart of a fire or work inside buildings in danger of collapse. There is a tendency observable to allow unimportant values to be destroyed if it is considered that their attack by water appears likely to cause greater damage than their worth justifies. Thus a roof or the contents of an attic, if situated in a high-class building, are generally allowed to burn out so that the floors below may not be injured by water. The rule of the brigade is to work upwards rather than downwards, and a branch is rarely applied to a fire from surrounding elevated positions. Regardless of the utility and great convenience of mechanically operated extension ladders, the brigade continues to give the closest attention to a hook ladder and lifeline work. Every foreman and fireman must be thoroughly efficient in the operation of these two appliances, failing which he is compulsorily retired, and every fireman drills once a week at least with this apparatus during the whole period of his service. Berlin possesses nearly seven hundred fire alarms, of which two hundred are public street alarms, directions there too being fixed on every lamp post, pillar box, and licensed kiosk adjacent to a crossing. The regulations governing the department stores of Berlin are peculiarly comprehensive, with the result that they are probably the best safeguarded in the world. Each shop of any magnitude has its private fire brigade, the watch-room of which is centrally situated, and apparatus for any emergency is kept in constant readiness. Employees are specially trained as to the alarms, bell signals, appliances, and those quarters to which they must proceed in the event of an alarm. Such signals are a. Quarters, b. Return to duty, c. Clear premises. The first signal can be pulled at any one of the private alarm points in the building, the second and third by a member of the private fire brigade alone, and then only from the watch-room. Upon the first call sounding, those attached to the fire section proceed to the scene of the outbreak, which is marked upon a specially illuminated location chart, while those not similarly engaged are expected to remain at their posts under pain of instant dismissal. By this method anything in the nature of a panic amongst the customers is immediately checked. At the third call the personnel not at quarters is expected to pilot the clientele into the open by exits arranged according to departments. Meantime all wagons and carriages have been removed from the courtyards, areas, and so forth by a special staff of porters who likewise act upon prearranged signals. As on board ship, test alarms are frequently made to familiarize both staff and visitors with the mode of clearance, and in this connection it is of interest to note that in the event of what a police officer may deem to be the overcrowding of any store, he has the power of stopping the entrance there too, until such time as the congestion has eased. Theater fire risks in Berlin are inconsiderable, thanks to the modernity of the majority of these structures, coupled with the stringency of the building regulations. The natural tendency to roominess observable in all public construction in Germany has also beneficially influenced the internal designs of places of amusement from a fire point of view. In Berlin proper there are thirty-four theaters, music halls, and circus buildings, the daily fire watches number thirty-six foremen and one hundred and nine men, about one sixth of the brigade, or a full half of the men off duty, for it must be explained that the men forming this contingent are voluntarily recruited from those who in their spare time wish to make extra pay. It must however be borne in mind that this special service is compulsory as regards the brigade, the means of its supply being left to the chief of the department. The problems connected with safety in stage illumination appear to have been solved in a satisfactory manner. Effects of flames and fire are obtained by concentrating electric lights of considerable power and of the required colors upon pieces of silk which are suspended by one end and blown into position with a fluttering movement by electric fans and bellows. A duplication of the lighting system is also provided in most theaters, this being obviously of extreme value in cases of emergency when otherwise the building would be plunged in darkness. An example of excellence in theater construction is afforded by the Schiller Theater with seating accommodation for one thousand four hundred sixty persons which it is estimated can be emptied in less than one minute. There is only one gallery of small size, the rest of the house being given over to what corresponds to stalls and pit in European theaters or in American phraseology orchestra chairs. To understand the situation of the fire service in Hamburg, it is necessary to appreciate that this is a city which in the main is a port with enormous warehouse values both within the dutiable area and in the free port, that it further has a large city or office district, a retail business section, and finally extensive residential suburbs of varying descriptions. The business portion of the city is intersected by a large number of waterways, which whilst providing the most valuable auxiliary of an ample and accessible water supply in some of the more dangerous districts, at the same time create considerable difficulty for intercommunication and the concentration of the brigade in force. Roughly the population of Hamburg amounts to nine hundred thousand, the number of buildings approximating thirty one thousand. The main fire risk is naturally centered in the warehouse area and more especially in the free port, where owing to the short-sightedness of those responsible to the harbor board for the dock equipment constructed in the early eighties of the last century, buildings were erected with all vertical and horizontal metal supports entirely unprotected and in many cases formed of light latticework girders which are peculiarly liable to collapse when subjected to great heat. In the newer warehouses all this has been remedied and the improvements introduced include the use of fire resisting materials to protect supports. The substitution of ordinary flooring by reinforced concrete laid at such an angle as to ensure the speedy and easy drainage of water into the scuppers, thus avoiding unnecessary damage therefrom in the event of fire, and the absolute insulation of all elevator shafts and staircases from the rest of the building. As to the development of the fire department its history is short considering the lesson that should have been learned from the destructive conflagration of 1842. Not until 1869 was a professional brigade formed and then it consisted only of the ridiculously inadequate number of forty-eight men under a chief officer. This in turn was assisted by twelve-hundred volunteers, the apparatus at their joint command comprising four steam fire pumps and one hundred and nine manuals. In 1878 the force was reconstituted and today it consists of a chief officer, twelve assistants, six warrant officers, forty-three foremen, twenty-nine engineers, and four-hundred and twenty-two firemen, or together with supplementary staff such as telegraphists and electricians, a total of nearly five hundred and fifty men. There are ten fire stations and as in Berlin the hours of duty are forty-eight on to twenty-four off. Some idea of the brigade's activity may be gleaned from the fact that on the yearly average it attends seventy fires of first importance and one thousand of lesser importance, while false alarms total the huge number of nearly five hundred. It would be of interest to know to what the latter remarkable figure is attributable. The equipment of the brigade is excellent. Amongst other apparatus may be noticed twenty-five steam fire pumps, seven chemical engines, ten eighty-foot extension ladders, and no less than seventeen large fire floats. Considering the strength of its personnel, the area of the city and the property to be protected, it is no exaggeration to state that few fire brigades can show so large a proportion of mechanically equipped apparatus, which in itself speaks volumes for the enterprise of the responsible authorities. The administration of the force is in the hands of a special civic commission formed on comparatively independent lines and representing the various interests at stake, both financial and technical. It consists of a senator who acts as chairman, a lawyer from the Senate, three municipal counselors, two municipal fire insurance officials, and an official from the city's waterworks. The cost of the brigade amounts annually to four hundred fifty thousand dollars, of which two hundred forty thousand dollars is raised by a special rate upon house property, fifty thousand dollars by stamp duties on fire insurance policies, while the remainder is provided by the authorities out of the general funds. An interesting feature is the position occupied by the chimney sweep, that humble individual whose services seldom receive recognition of any sort from the community, yet upon whose thoroughness depends the safety of property and persons untold. In Hamburg the genus sweep is under fire brigade control, and no one can start in that business without first passing a stringent examination. It is compulsory to have all chimneys cleaned at regular intervals, and in the event of negligence both sweep and proprietor of the premises at fault are heavily fined. Generally as regards fire risks the Hamburg municipality has framed special bylaws along much the same lines as those existing in Berlin, and the protection thus afforded is both ample and adequate. Though the town of Hanover is small, its population amounting only to two hundred seventy-two thousand, any one visiting its brigade cannot but be struck by the fact that it is no ordinary organization, but rather one of exceptional excellence, and which on that account can afford to be compared with any in Europe. Needless to say, any great expenditure on apparatus cannot be expected from such a small community, but the district covered possesses a dangerous manufacturing section, and includes some factories of great size. Hence to meet the needs of the situation it has been necessary to provide a department which if confined to its regular duties would scarcely find sufficient employment. But an economical solution of the problem was found by according to the brigade and its officers additional municipal functions other than those of the fire service, and to this end both officers and men have been trained for other special duties. At the same time it was wisely determined that the apparatus, though limited in quantity, should be the best obtainable in quality, and that the salaries of all concerned should be upon as liberal a scale as possible. Thus the brigade acts as the ambulance department of Hanover, in itself a work of considerable utility. Unlike other departments which possess a first aid section, in this case the Corps undertakes the transport of infectious cases and the like to hospital, which though open naturally to serious objection on account of the possibility of the spread of disease through this agency, is nonetheless a service that in a small town can be carried on with the minimum of risk, when every man concerned is under the closest medical supervision. In addition the Chief Officer of this fire department is also Ipso facto the Administrative Head of the Municipal Scavenging and Dust Destructor Service, which incidentally has considerable bearing upon fire prevention. Though no doubt a certain sympathy must be felt for scientific firefighters who are expected to employ a portion of their time in such uncongenial occupations as taking Diphtheria patients to hospital or acting as scavengers, yet as the municipality urges they can only afford to pay for a brigade in which the rank and file can be otherwise employed, and it would seem better to have a fire force at even that price than possess none at all. And it must be remembered that Germany is a free country and that there is no compulsion to serve at any rate in the Hanover Fire Department. The present constitution of the brigade is as follows. Four superior officers, an inspector of telegraphs, a superintendent of ambulance work, seventeen foremen, eighty-six firemen, six telegraph clerks, and twelve coachmen, or one hundred and twenty-seven of all ranks. There are three fire stations and approximately thirteen thousand eight hundred buildings to be protected. The principal equipment consists of three steam motor propelled pumps, three eighty-foot extension ladders, four motor chemical engines, and seven traps. These latter are extremely useful appliances, carrying hook and scaling ladders, a quantity of hose, lifelines, and all those minor appliances that at fire often spell so much at the commencement of an outbreak. Three motor ambulances also merit mention, and all municipal telegraphy and electric wiring for bell and signal purposes being under the brigade's control, there are special motor trolleys for that branch of the department. The core is equipped with forty-five street alarm call boxes in public thoroughfares and twenty-two in private or municipal buildings. On the average the annual number of fires attended amounts to two hundred and eighty-two, of which twenty-one rank as of major importance, twenty-eight are medium and seventy-eight are chimney fires. The ambulance section roughly answers four thousand five hundred calls per annum, of which no less than six hundred may be docketed as infectious. Hence it speaks volumes for the medical precautions adopted that rarely, if ever, a fireman is temporarily incapacitated or permanently injured from this duty. As indicated, though a mere enumeration of personnel scarcely serves to emphasize sufficiently the point, this small force is no ordinary one, and under its former fire chief, Herr Reichel, now in command in Berlin, it can lay claim to having taken the initiative in motor traction as applied to fire engines, certainly in Germany, if not in the entire world. Today there would be nothing in a fire brigade ordering self-propelled appliances, rather would they be remarkable if they did not. But it is worthy of more than passing comment that as long ago as nineteen-o-one Herr Reichel was able to exhibit at the Berlin International Fire Exhibition a complete fire service unit for a district station comprising a motor steam fire engine, an automobile trap, and a self-propelled chemical engine, which working as a unit time has proved to be eminently economical. The unit in question, after an experimental trial of three months, entered the regular service of the Hanover Force and is still doing excellent work even today. As regards water supply, this is ample, the pressure off the mains averaging forty-five pounds. Before closing the brief account of this most enterprising small brigade, a few words must be added concerning the actual methods employed in the ambulance service. On an alarm sounding, an ambulance starts away at once, in the charge of a coachman and four firemen. In infectious cases, the men have instructions to handle the sufferer as little as possible, and at the end of the journey both attendants and coach are thoroughly fumigated. This system is also used for the removal of dangerous persons and lunatics, thus constituting a valuable auxiliary to the local police, hospitals, and lunatic asylums. Finally, this branch of the brigade during the summer months is charged with the manufacture of ice, which is sold at cost price to those in a position to pay for it, but is supplied free to the poor in case of illness or other necessity. In fact, the town of Hanover can lay claim to the proud boast that first of all the cities in the world it has recognized the science of firefighting to the extent of founding a lectureship on fire control, the chair of which is located at the Royal Technical College of Hanover, which now ranks as a national university. The first lecturer, docent, was that Herr Reichel of whom mention has already been made. From a perusal of the foregoing pages the reader will have recognized that the outstanding feature of German fire brigade organization, as evidenced by that of its most important centers, is the large part played by a semi-military handling of the subject, coupled with that thoroughness of technique and design which is distinctive of the Tutan character. But this must not be taken to mean that in the opinion of the author nothing is beyond criticism or above discussion. In the first place, as must always happen in countries where class distinctions are rigid and the private soldier cannot in all truth be said to carry the field marshals baton in his pocket, there is that tendency to assume that mere theoretical training is sufficient to equip an individual satisfactorily to fight so insidious an enemy as fire. It is the humble opinion of this writer that this theory is erroneous. The individual may be provided with the most extensive scientific panoply of degrees and diplomas regarding the arithmetic progression of combustion under certain conditions. He may be able to work out by trigonometry the angle of water delivery from a pump to a window many feet from the ground, and he may be an expert at assessing the nozzle pressure necessary successfully to circumvent an outbreak before the latter has reached serious proportions. This in theory. But what of the practice? Every sailor knows that it is a matter of no great difficulty to ascertain in a classroom the position of an imaginary ship upon an imaginary ocean with the assistance of an imaginary sextant and the ordinary aids to navigation. Everything is at hand to make his task an easy one, even to that of such adjuncts as light, warmth, and stability. But place that same individual on board a real ship upon a real ocean in a small ill-lighted deck-house with a chart pinned down on a swaying uneven surface, and ask him to work out the same set of figures or the same problem, and he may be forgiven if he fails hopelessly. So is it in all appertaining to this science of firefighting? With all the technical knowledge in the world and nothing else behind it, it would be ludicrous to expect any person successfully to cope with so crafty an enemy as the flames, or at any rate as competently to obtain their mastery as one trained actually upon the field of experience. In this connection also, without wishing to appear hyper-critical, it seems doubtful whether the Berlin practice of preventing senior officers from taking an active part in the actual firefighting is either wise or desirable. True, a general on a battlefield is expected to direct operations from a point of as much safety as is consistent with his duties. But in the case of a fire-chief, it should be remembered that each fire must be fought on its particular merits. There has been no survey of the ground previously, there has been no active intelligence department to warn the attacking force of what particular line of development may be expected. All that the fire-chief knows is the bare fact that an outbreak has occurred at such and such a place, and that the locality is a dangerous one or vice versa. Hence, in order to satisfy himself as to the true state of affairs, it is imperative that he should judge for himself by personal observation as to the possible chances of a spread of the flames and the best method to fight the same. Further, another feature of the Berlin fire department seems to demand special criticism, namely the custom of allowing a fire to burn itself out if situated at the top of a building, the other contents of which would be damaged by a water attack. No doubt this may be assayed and assayed safely in a fire-proof building, separated from its neighbors by a certain distance, and when a sufficient portion of the fire department is concentrated on the scene and can remain there for any emergency. But time must be allowed for said fire to burn out, and the force detailed to watch it may meantime be urgently wanted elsewhere, and to leave it unwatched would of course be suicidal. Hence, such tactics must be regarded as hazardous, and much better were it that the insurance companies should suffer for a minimum of loss, then be obliged to meet the demands of a really serious conflagration, the possibility of which is always present under such conditions. These are a few of the thoughts which arise in the mind of any trained practical firefighter. It is the theoretician who sees in the vicarious strategy outlined above a better method of overcoming a wily enemy than the old style of coming to grips at once and fighting to a finish. For the rest, the German fire departments have much to recommend them as models to the world, not the least important factor in their organization being the prestige attaching to firefighting as a science, and to the honourable position occupied by officers and men in the estimation of the public.