 Section 14 of an Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Book 3 of Words by John Locke. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Ella Quint from Applebacksville, Pennsylvania. Chapter 11 of the Remedies of the Forgoing Imperfections and Abuses of Words, Part 1 Section 1, Remedies are Worth Seeking. The natural and improved imperfections of languages we have seen above at large, and speech being the great bond that holds society together, and the common conduit, whereby the improvements of knowledge are conveyed from one man and one generation to another, it would well deserve our most serious thoughts to consider what remedies are to be found for the inconveniences above mentioned. Section 2, Are Not Easy to Find. I am not so vain as to think that anyone can pretend to attempt the perfect reforming the languages of the world. No, not so much as of his own country, without rendering himself ridiculous. To require that men should use their words constantly in the same sense, and for none but determined and uniform ideas, would be to think that all men should have the same notions and should talk of nothing but what they have clear and distinct ideas of, which is not to be expected by anyone who hath not vanity enough to imagine he can prevail with men to be very knowing or very silent. And he must be very little skilled in the world who thinks that a voluble tongue shall accompany only a good understanding, or that men's talking much or little should hold proportion only to their knowledge. Section 3, But Yet Necessary to Those Who Search After Truth. But though the market and exchange must be left to their own ways of talking, and gossipings not be robbed of their ancient privilege, though the schools and men of argument would perhaps take it amiss to have anything offered to abate the length or lessen the number of their disputes, yet me thinks those who pretend seriously to search after or maintain truth should think themselves obliged to study how they might deliver themselves without obscurity, doubtfulness, or equivocation, to which men's words are naturally liable if care be not taken. Section 4, Misuse of Words the Great Cause of Errors. For he that shall well consider the errors and obscurity, the mistakes and confusion that are spread in the world by an ill use of words will find some reason to doubt whether language, as it has been employed, has contributed more to the improvement or hindrance of knowledge amongst mankind. How many are there that when they would think on things, fix their thoughts only on words, especially when they would apply their minds to moral matters? And who then can wonder if the result of such contemplations and reasonings about little more than sounds, whilst the ideas they annex to them are very confused and very unsteady, or perhaps none at all? Who can wonder, I say, that such thoughts and reasonings end in nothing but obscurity and mistake without any clear judgment or knowledge. Section 5, Has Made Men More Conceded and Obstinate. This inconvenience, in an ill use of words, men suffer in their own private meditations, but much more manifest are the disorders which follow from it, in conversation, discourse, and arguing with others. For language being the great conduit whereby men convey their discoveries, reasonings, and knowledge, from one to another. He that makes an ill use of it, though he does not corrupt the fountains of knowledge which are in things themselves, yet he does as much as in him lies, break, or stop the pipes whereby it is distributed to the public use and advantage of mankind. He that uses words without any clear and steady meaning, what does he but lead himself and others into errors? And he that designedly does it, ought to be looked on as an enemy to truth and knowledge. And yet who can wonder that all the sciences and parts of knowledge have been so overcharged with obscure and equivocal terms and insignificant and doubtful expressions capable to make the most attentive or quick-sighted very little or not at all the more knowing or orthodox? Since subtlety in those who make profession to teach or defend truth hath passed so much for a virtue, a virtue indeed, which, consisting for the most part in nothing but the fallacious and illusory use of obscure or deceitful terms, is only fit to make men more conceited in their ignorance and more obstinate in their errors. Section 6. Addicted to Wrangling About Sounds Let us look into the books of controversy of any kind. There we shall see that the effect of obscure, unsteady, or equivocal terms is nothing but noise and wrangling about sounds without convincing or bettering a man's understanding. For if the idea be not agreed on, betwixt the speaker and hearer for which the words stand, the argument is not about things, but names. As often as such a word whose signification is not ascertained betwixt them comes in use, their understandings have no other object wherein they agree, but barely the sound. The things that they think on at that time as expressed by that word being quite different. Section 7. Instance, Bat, and Bird Whether a bat be a bird or no is not a question. Whether a bat be another thing, then indeed it is, or have other qualities, then indeed it has. For that would be extremely absurd to doubt of. But the question is, one, either between those that acknowledge themselves to have but imperfect ideas of one or both of this sort of things for which these names are supposed to stand. And then it is a real inquiry concerning the nature of a bird or a bat to make their yet imperfect ideas of it more complete. By examining whether all the simple ideas to which combine together they both give name bird be all to be found in a bat. But this is a question only of inquirers, not disputers, who neither affirm nor deny but examine. Or, too, it is a question between disputants, whereof the one affirms and the other denies that a bat is a bird. And then the question is barely about the signification of one or both these words, and that they not having both the same complex ideas to which they give these two names, one holds and the other denies that these two names may be affirmed one of another. Were they agreed in the signification of these two names it were impossible they should dispute about them, for they would presently and clearly see were that adjusted between them. Whether all the simple ideas of the more general name bird were found in the complex idea of a bat or no. And so there could be no doubt whether a bat were a bird or no. And here I desire it may be considered and carefully examined whether the greatest part of the disputes in the world are not merely verbal and about the signification of words and whether if the terms they are made in were defined and reduced in their signification as they must be where they signify anything to determine collections of the simple ideas they do or should stand for. Those disputes would not end of themselves and immediately vanish. I leave it then to be considered what the learning of disputation is and how well they are employed for the advantage of themselves or others whose business is only the vain ostentation of sounds i.e. those who spend their lives in disputes and controversies. When I shall see any of those combatants strip all his terms of ambiguity and obscurity which everyone may do in the words he uses himself I shall thank him a champion for knowledge, truth and peace and not the slave of vain glory, ambition or a party. Section 8 Remedies To remedy the defects of speech before mentioned to some degree and to prevent the inconveniences that follow from them I imagine the observation of these following rules may be of use till somebody better able shall judge it worth his while to think more maturely on this matter and oblige the world with his thoughts on it. First Remedy To use no word without an idea annexed to it. First a man shall take care to use no word without a signification no name without an idea for which he makes it stand. This rule will not seem altogether needless to anyone who shall take the pains to recollect how often he has met with such words as instinct, sympathy and antipathy, etc. in the discourse of others. So made use of as he might easily conclude that those that used them had no ideas in their minds to which they applied them but spoke them only as sounds which usually served instead of reasons on the like occasions. Not but that these words and the like have very proper significations in which they may be used, but there being no natural connection between any words and any ideas these and any other may be learned by rote and pronounced or ripped by men who have no ideas in their minds to which they have annexed them and for which they make them stand which is necessary they should if men would speak intelligibly even to themselves alone. Section 9 Second Remedy To have distinct determinant ideas annexed to words especially in mixed modes. Secondly it is not enough a man uses his words as signs of some ideas those he annexes them to if they be simple must be clear and distinct if complex must be determinant i.e. the precise collection of simple ideas settled in the mind with that sound annex to it as the sign of that precise determined collection and no other. This is very necessary in names of modes and especially moral words which having no settled objects in nature from whence their ideas are taken as from their original are apt to be very confused. Justice is a word in every man's mouth but most commonly with a very undetermined loose signification which will always be so unless a man has in his mind a distinct comprehension of the component parts that complex idea consists of and if it be decompounded must be able to resolve it still only till he has at last comes to the simple ideas that make it up and unless this be done a man makes an ill use of the word let it be justice for example or any other. I do not say a man needs stand to recollect and make this analysis at large every time the word justice comes in his way but this at least is necessary that he have so examined the signification of that name and settled the idea of all its parts in his mind that he can do it when he pleases if anyone who makes his complex idea of justice to be such a treatment of the person or goods of another as is according to law have not a clear and distinct idea what law is which makes a part of his complex idea of justice it is plain his idea of justice itself will be confused and imperfect this exactness will perhaps be judged very troublesome and therefore most men will think they may be excused from settling the complex ideas of mixed modes so precisely in their minds but yet I must say till this be done it must not be wondered that they have a great deal of obscurity and confusion in their own minds and a great deal of wrangling in their discourse with others. Section 10 and distinct and comfortable ideas in words that stand for substances. In the names of substances for a right use of them something more is required than barely determined ideas in these the names must also be conformable to things as they exist but of this I shall have occasion to speak more at large by and by this exactness is absolutely necessary in inquiries after philosophical knowledge and in controversies about truth and though it would be well to if it extended itself to common conversation and the ordinary affairs of life yet I think that is scarce to be expected vulgar notions suit vulgar discourses and both though confused enough yet serve pretty well the market and the wake merchants and lovers cooks and tailors have words were with all to dispatch their ordinary affairs and so I think might philosophers and disputants to if they had a mind to understand and to clearly understood. Section 11 third remedy to apply words to such ideas as common use has annexed them to thirdly it is not enough that men have ideas determined ideas for which they make these signs stand but they must also take care to apply their words as near as may be to such ideas as common use has annexed them to for words especially of languages already framed being no man's private possession but the common measure of commerce and communication it is not for any one at pleasure to change the stamp they are current in nor alter the ideas they are affixed to or at least when there is a necessity to do so he is bound to give notice of it. Men's intentions in speaking are or at least should be to be understood which cannot be without frequent explanations demands and other the like and comodious interruptions where men do not follow common use. Propriety of speech is that which gives our thoughts entrance into other men's minds with the greatest ease and advantage and therefore deserves some part of our Karen study especially in the names of moral words. The proper signification and use of terms is best to be learned from those who in their ratings and discourses appear to have had the clearest notions and apply to them their terms with the exactest choice and fitness. This way of using a man's words according to the propriety of the language that would have not always the good fortune to be understood yet most commonly leaves the blame of it on him who is so unskillful in the language he speaks as not to understand it when made use of it as it ought to be. Section 12, fourth remedy to declare the meaning in which we use them. Fourthly, but because common use has not so visibly annexed any signification to words as to make men know always certainly what they precisely stand for and because men in the improvement of their knowledge come to have ideas different from the vulgar and ordinary received ones for which they must either make new words which men seldom venture to do for fear being thought guilty of affectation or novelty or else must use old ones in a new signification. Therefore, after the observation of the foregoing rules it is sometimes necessary for the ascertaining the signification of words to declare their meaning. Where either common use has left it uncertain and loose as it has in most names of very complex ideas or where the term being very material in the discourse and that upon which it chiefly turns is liable to any doubtfulness or mistake. Section 13, and that in three ways. As the ideas men's words stand for are of different sorts so the way of making known the ideas they stand for when there is occasion is also different. For they're defining be thought the proper way to make known the proper signification of words yet there are some words that will not be defined as there are others whose precise meaning cannot be made known but by definition and perhaps a third which partakes somewhat of both the other as we shall see in the names of simple ideas, modes and substances. Section 14, in simple ideas either by synonymous terms or by showing examples. One, first, when a man makes use of the name of any simple idea which he perceives is not understood or is in danger to be mistaken he is obliged by the laws of ingenuity and the end of speech to declare his meaning and make known what idea he makes it stand for. This as has been shown cannot be done by definition and therefore when a synonymous word fails to do it there is but one of these ways left. First, sometimes the naming the subject wherein the simple idea is to be found will make its name to be understood by those who are acquainted with that subject and know it by that name. So to make a country man understand what fave malt color signifies it may suffice to tell him it is the color of withered leaves falling in autumn. Secondly, but the only sure way of making known the signification of the name of any simple idea is by presenting to his senses that subject which may produce it in his mind and make him actually have the idea that word stands for. Section 15 in mixed modes by definition. Two, secondly mixed modes especially those belonging to morality being most of them such combinations of ideas as the mind puts together of its own choice and where of there are not always standing patterns to be found existing. The signification of their names cannot be made known as those of simple ideas by any showing but in recompense thereof may be perfectly and exactly defined for they being combinations of several ideas that the mind of man has arbitrarily put together without reference to any archetypes men may if they please exactly know the ideas that go to each composition and so both use these words in a certain and undoubted signification and perfectly declare when there is occasion what they stand for this if well considered would lay great blame on those who make not their discourses about moral things very clear and distinct for since the precise signification of the names of mixed modes or which is all one the real essence of each species is to be known they being not of natures but man's making it is a great negligence and perverseness to discourse of moral things with uncertainty and obscurity which is more pardonable in treating of natural substances redoubtful terms are hardly to be avoided for a quite contrary reason as we shall see by and by section 16 morality capable of demonstration upon this ground it is that I am bold to think that morality is capable of demonstration as well as mathematics since the precise real essence of the things moral words stand for may be perfectly known and so the congruity and incongruity of these things themselves be certainly discovered in which consists perfect knowledge nor let any one object that the names of substances are often to be made use of immorality as well as those of modes from which we will arise obscurity for as to substances when concerned in moral discourses their diverse natures are not so much inquired into as supposed VG when we say that man is subject to law we mean nothing by man but a corporeal rational creature with the real essence or other qualities of that creature are in this case is no way considered and therefore whether a child or changeling be a man in a physical sense may amongst the naturalists be as disputable as it will it concerns not at all the moral man as I may call him which is this immovable unchangeable idea a corporeal rational being for were there a monkey or any other creature to be found that had the use of reason to such a degree as to be able to understand general signs and to deduce consequences about general ideas he would no doubt be subject to law and in that sense be a man how much so ever he differed in shape from others of that name the names of substances if they be used in them as they should can no more disturb moral than they do mathematical discourses where if the mathematician speaks of a cube or globe of gold or of any other body he has his clear settled idea which varies not though it may by mistake be applied to a particular body to which it belongs not and of section 14 section 15 of an essay concerning human understanding book 3 of words by John Locke this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org chapter 11 of the remedies of the foregoing imperfections and abuses of words part 2 section 17 definitions can make moral discourse clear this I have here mentioned by the by to show of what consequence it is for men in their names of mixed modes and consequently in all their moral discourses to define their words when there is occasion since there by moral knowledge may be brought to so great clearness and certainty and it must be of great want of ingenuousness to say no worse of it to refuse to do it since a definition is the only way whereby the precise meaning of moral words can be known and yet away whereby their meaning may be known certainly and without leaving any room for any contest about it and therefore the negligence or perverseness of mankind cannot be excused if their discourses in morality be not much more clear than those in natural philosophy since they are about ideas in the mind which are none of them false or disproportionate they having no external beings for the archetypes which they are referred to and must correspond with it is far easier for men to frame in their minds and idea which shall be the standard to which they will give the name justice with which pattern so made all actions that agree shall pass under that denomination then having seen Aristotle's to frame an idea that shall in all things be exactly like him who is as he is let men make what idea they please of him for the one they need but know the combination of ideas that are put together in their own minds for the other they must inquire into the whole nature and abstruse hidden constitution and various qualities of a thing existing without them section 18 and is the only way in which the meaning of mixed modes can be made known another reason that makes the defining of mixed modes so necessary especially of moral words is what I mentioned a little before these that it is the only way whereby the signification of the most of them can be known with certainty for the ideas they stand for being for the most part such whose component parts no where exist together but scattered and mingled with others it is the mind alone that collects them and gives them the union of one idea and is is only by words enumerating the several simple ideas which the mind has united that we can make known to others what their names stand for the assistance of the senses in this case not helping us by the proposal of sensible objects to show the ideas which our names of this kind stand for as it does often in the names of sensible simple ideas and also to some degree in those of substances section 19 in substances both by showing and by defining three thirdly for the explaining the signification of the names of substances as they stand for the ideas we have of their distinct species both the four mentioned ways these of showing and defining are requisite in many cases to be made use of for there being ordinarily in each sort some leading qualities to which we suppose the other ideas which make up our complex idea of that species annexed we forwardly give the specific name to that thing where in that characteristic mark is found which we take to be the most distinguishing idea of that species these leading or characteristical as I may call them ideas in the sorts of animals and vegetables are as has been before remarked chapter 6 section 29 and chapter 9 section 15 mostly figure and in inanimate bodies color and in some both together now section 20 ideas of the leading qualities of substances are best got by showing these leading sensible qualities are those which make the chief ingredients of our specific ideas and consequently the most observable and invariable part in the definitions of our specific names as attributed to sorts of substances coming under our knowledge for though the sound man in its own nature be as apt to signify a complex idea made up of animality and rationality united in the same subject as to signify any other combination yet used as a mark to stand for a sort of creatures we count of our own kind perhaps the outward shape is as necessary to be taken into our complex idea signified by the word man as any other we find in it and therefore why Plato's animal in plume be best lattice and we boost should not be a good definition of the name man standing for that sort of creatures will not be easy to show for it is the shape as the leading quality that seems more to determine that species than a faculty of reasoning which appears not at first and in some never and if this be not allowed to be so I do not know how they can be excused from murder who kill monstrous births as we call them because of an ordinary shape without knowing whether they have a rational soul or no which can be no more discerned in a well-formed then ill shaped infant as soon as born and who is it has informed us that a rational soul can inhabit no tenement unless it has just a sort of a frontus piece or can join itself to and inform no sort of body but one that is just of such an outward structure section 21 and can hardly be made known otherwise now these leading qualities are best made known by showing and can hardly be made known otherwise for the shape of a horse or cassowary will be but rudely and imperfectly imprinted on the mind by words the sight of the animals do that a thousand times better and the idea of the particular color of gold is not to be got by any description of it but only by the frequent exercise of the eyes about as is evident in those who are used to this metal who frequently distinguished true from counterfeit pure from adulterate by the site where others who have as good eyes but yet by use have not got the precise nice idea of that peculiar yellow shall not perceive any difference the like may be said of those other simple ideas peculiar in their kind to any substance for which precise ideas there are no peculiar names the particular ringing sound there is in gold distinct from the sound of other bodies has no particular name annex to it no more than the particular yellow that belongs to that metal section 22 the ideas of the powers of substances are best known by definition but because many of the simple ideas that make up our specific ideas of substances are powers which lie not obvious to our senses in the things as they ordinarily appear therefore in the signification of our names of substances some part of the signification will be better made known by enumerating those simple ideas then by showing the substance itself for he that to the yellow shining color of gold got by sight shall from my enumerating them have the ideas of great ductility feasibility fixedness and solubility in agua regia will have a perfecter idea of gold then he can have by seeing a piece of gold and thereby imprinting in his mind only its obvious qualities but if the formal constitution of the shining heavy ductile thing from whence all these its properties flow lay open to our senses as the formal constitution or essence of a triangle does the signification of the word gold might as easily be ascertained as that of triangle section 23 a reflection on the knowledge of corporeal things possessed by spirits separate from bodies hence we may take notice how much the foundation of all our knowledge of corporeal things lies in our senses for how spirits separate from bodies whose knowledge and ideas of these things are certainly much more perfect than ours know them we have no notion no idea at all the whole extent of our knowledge or imagination reaches not beyond our own ideas limited to our ways of perception though yet it being not to be doubted that spirits of a higher rank than those immersed in flesh may have as clear ideas of the radical constitution of substances as we have of a triangle and so perceive how all their properties and operations flow from fence but the manner how they come by that knowledge exceeds our conceptions section 24 ideas of substances must also be conformable to things fourthly but their definitions will serve to explain the names of substances as they stand for our ideas if they leave them not without great imperfection as they stand for things for our names of substances being not but barely for our ideas but being made use of ultimately to represent things and so are put in their place their signification must agree with the truth of things as well as with men's ideas and therefore in substances we are not always to rest in the ordinary complex idea commonly received as the signification of that word but must go a little further and inquire into the nature and properties of the things themselves and thereby perfect as much as we can our ideas of their distinct species or else learn from them such as our use to that sort of things and are experienced in them for since it is intended their names should stand for such collections of simple ideas as do really exist in things themselves as well as for the complex idea in other men's minds which in their ordinary acceptation they stand for therefore to define their names right natural history is to be inquired into and their properties are with care and examination to be found out for it is not enough for the avoiding inconveniences in discourse and arguing about natural bodies and substantial things to have learned from the propriety of the language the common but confused or very imperfect idea to which each word is applied and to keep them to that idea in our use of them but we must by acquainting ourselves with the history of that sort of things rectify and settle our complex idea belonging to each specific name and in discourse with others if we find them mistake us we ought to tell what the complex idea is that we make such a name stand for this is the more necessary to be done by all those who search after knowledge and philosophical verity in that children being taught words whilst they have but imperfect notions of things apply them at random and without much thinking and seldom frame determined ideas to be signified by them which custom it being easy and serving well enough for the ordinary affairs of life and conversation they are apt to continue when they are men and so being at the wrong end learning words first and perfectly but make the notions to which they apply those words afterwards very overtly but this means it comes to pass that men speaking the language of their country i.e. according to grammar rules of that language do yet speak very improperly of things themselves and by there arguing one with another make but small progress in the discoveries of useful truths and the knowledge of things as they are to be found in themselves and not in our imaginations and it matters not much for the improvement of our knowledge how they are called section 25 not easy to be made so it were therefore to be wished that men versed in physical inquiries and acquainted with the several sorts of natural bodies but set down those simple ideas wherein they observe the individuals of each sort constantly to agree this would remedy a great deal of that confusion which comes from several persons applying the same name to a collection of a smaller or greater number of sensible qualities proportionably as they have been more or less acquainted with or accurate in examining the qualities of any sort of things which come under one denomination but a dictionary of this sort containing as it were a natural history requires too many hands as well as too much time cost paint and sagacity ever to be hoped for until that be done we must content ourselves with such definitions of the names of substances as explain the sense man use them in and it would be well where there is occasion if they would afford us so much this yet is not usually done but men talk to one another and dispute in words whose meaning is not agreed between them out of a mistake that the significations of common words are certainly established and the precise ideas they stand for perfectly known and that it is a shame to be ignorant of them both which suppositions are false no names of complex ideas having so settled determined significations that they are constantly used for the same precise ideas nor is it a shame for a man to have a certain knowledge of anything but by the necessary ways of attaining it and so it is no discredit not to know what precise idea any sound stands for in another man's mind without he declare it to me by some other way than barely using that sound there being no other way without such a declaration certainly to know it indeed the necessity of communication by language brings men to an agreement in the signification of common words within some tolerable latitude that may serve for ordinary conversation and so a man cannot be supposed wholly ignorant of the ideas which are annexed to words by common use in a language familiar to him but common use being but a very uncertain rule which reduces itself at last to the ideas of particular men proves often but a very variable standard but those such a dictionary as I have above mentioned will require too much time cost and pains to be hoped for in this age yet me thinks it is not unreasonable to propose that word standing for things which are known and distinguished by their outward shapes should be expressed by little drafts and prints made of them a vocabulary made after this fashion would perhaps with more ease and in less time teach the true signification of many terms especially in languages of remote countries or ages and settle truer ideas in men's minds of several things where we read the names in ancient authors than all the large and laborious comments of learned critics naturalists that treat of plants and animals have found the benefit of this way and he that has had occasion to consult them will have reason to confess that he has a clear idea of apium or ibex from a little print of that herb or beast then he could have from a long definition of the names of either of them and so no doubt he would have of surgical and Systrom if instead of curriculum and symbol which are the English names dictionaries render them by he could see stamped in the margin small pictures of these instruments as they were in use amongst the ancients toga tunica pallium our words easily translated by gown coat and cloak but we have thereby no more true ideas of the fashion of those habits amongst the Romans than we have of the faces of the tailors who made them such things as these which the I distinguishes by their shapes would be best left into the mind by drafts made of them and more determine the signification of such words than any other word set for them or made use of to define them but this is only by the by section twenty six five fifth remedy to use the same word constantly in the same sense fifthly if men will not be at the pains to declare the meaning of their words and definitions of their terms are not to be had yet this is the least that can be expected that in all discourses wherein one man pretends to instruct or convince another he should use the same word constantly in the same sense if this were done which nobody can refuse without great disingenuity many of the books extent might be spared many of the controversies in dispute would be at an end several of those great volumes swollen with ambiguous words now used in one sense and by and by in another which shrink into a very narrow compass and many of the philosophers to mention no other as well as poets works might be contained in a nutshell section twenty seven when not so used the variation is to be explained but after all the provision of words is so scanty in respect to that infinite variety of thoughts that men wanting terms to suit their precise nations will not withstanding their utmost caution be forced often to use the same word in somewhat different senses and though in the continuation of a discourse or the pursuit of an argument there can be hardly room to digress into a particular definition as often as a man varies the signification of any term yet the import of the discourse will for the most part if there be no designed fallacy sufficiently lead candid and intelligent readers into the true meaning of it but where there is not sufficient to guide the reader there it concerns the writer to explain his meaning and show in what sense he there uses that term end of section fifteen end of an essay concerning human understanding book three of words by John