 As-Salaam-Alaikum, welcome to virtual university. Dear students, up till now the focus of our lessons has been on the development of your reading comprehension skills, but now the focus will shift to the writing of sentences and paragraphs and grammar. In today's lesson, we will look at different sentences, different types of sentences. Now despite the wide availability and use of computers, word processors and electronic communication devices, most of us still communicate with one another by exchanging written and spoken words and we naturally want to express ourselves as well as possible. We want to be able to communicate our thoughts to others accurately, convincingly and of course gracefully. Thinking, speaking and writing are closely related to each other. If you are familiar with the essential rules of good English and think clearly, you will speak and write with confidence. The confidence that comes from a sense of having mastered the rules and conventions which must be followed in all acceptable writing. Now you as a student are interested in writing in English, you will have to learn and master these rules and conventions if you are to communicate your thoughts successfully. These rules and standards keeping up to these standards are important and until you have grasped them well, you will be handicapped for you will lack the tools of the craft of writing because writing is a craft and it does not come easily unless you master the rules and the conventions. Now remember that writing does not come off itself, it is a skill, a skill that is learned, it is a learned skill and it is a specialized skill which needs a lot of practice. Now writing in a foreign language is not easy, even native speakers of that language they find it difficult to express themselves clearly in their own mother tongue. And for you who are foreign learners of English like you and me, it is all the more difficult, but with knowledge of those rules and practice one can learn to write well. Good writing therefore depends on a knowledge of three things and those three things are number one rules of grammar, the rules of syntax, how sentences are constructed. Number two rhetoric and number three composition. Now before we move on you must have some notion of grammar. What is grammar? You studied it in school, you studied it in college and you know you are familiar with the basics. Grammar deals with the parts of speech, with the variations in the form of words when they are used in different constructions and with the relationship between different words within the sentence. So, it is two things, it is grammar deals with the variations in the form of words when they are used in different constructions and with the relationship between the different words within the sentence. You will also discover that the rules of grammar are quite definite and at the same time you will find that under certain circumstances a form of a word is correct and other forms are incorrect grammar. So grammar concerns all the rules of language use. It classifies words into all sorts of categories and describes the peculiarities of each category. Grammar has many categories and specifies each category by a term or a name and you recognize by the name given to it. Now the English language has eight parts of speech. You learned that in school a long time ago and they are the different kinds of words that are used for different purposes in a sentence. You are all familiar with the eight parts of the English speech which are noun, verb, pronoun, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection. Now in addition to the eight parts of speech there are other terms which you must become familiar with in order to understand and write effective sentences. You have got my point? You have to write effective sentences and there are four kinds of words that are two parts of speech combined into one. These are participle, gerund, infinitive and relative adverb. You are familiar with the eight parts of speech. These four that I have just mentioned in addition to those eight parts of speech and you must be familiar with them and what they mean. A participle the first one was participle. It is a verb and adjective combined, a verb and adjective combined. Example the retired headmaster distributed the prices, the retired headmaster distributed the prices. Now in that sentence the word retired it is part of the verb to retire. But it is also an adjective modifying the word teacher which is a noun. Are you with me? In that sentence the word retired is normally it is part of the verb to retire. But over there in that sentence it is functioning as an adjective and adjective modifying the word teacher and hence the word retired is a participle which is over there in that sentence. It is a verb and an adjective combined. The second term is gerund. It is a verb and noun combined and look at the example. She is thinking of leaving her job. She is thinking of leaving her job. Again the word leaving is part of the verb to leave and it is also a noun, the object of the preposition of. She is thinking of leaving. The third term is infinitive. Infinitive is also a verb and noun combined. Example she wished to deposit the money. She wishes to deposit the money. Now in this sentence the words to deposit is an infinitive. Here to deposit is the infinitive form of the verb deposit. But as it is the object of the transitive verb wish it is also a kind of noun. And remember that infinitives always have the word to before them. So it is to deposit. To deposit is the infinitive. It is functioning there as an infinitive. And the fourth word term that you must know is the relative adverb. The relative adverb is partly an adverb and partly a conjunction. Example I was relieved when the program ended. I was relieved when the program ended. Here the word when it is modifying the verb was. Here when is an adverb. But because it joins I was relieved and the program ended it is also a conjunction. Now you must be familiar with these four terms participle, gerund, infinitive and relative adverb. Now besides knowledge of grammar the other two things required for good writing are rhetoric which deals with the choice of words and their effective arrangement and composition which is putting together of parts to form a whole. Words into sentences, sentences into paragraphs and paragraphs into longer units. This arrangement is essential to all writing. The rules of rhetoric and composition which are less rigid than the rules of grammar provide the standards of good writing. It is the rules of rhetoric and composition which are less rigid than the rules of grammar. They provide the standards of good writing. Remember these rules of good English are the result of generations of experiments in the art of using words for communication. Each even messages composed on word processors for instance are texts. They are texts constructed of words and sentences according to the rules and usages of English grammar spelling and punctuation. So writing then is a means of communication as well as self expression. In most cases students are capable of communicating their ideas, knowledge, experiences and opinions. But almost everyone no matter how accomplished in communicating with others can benefit from help or advice in improving his or her communication skills. Now the tools of writing are, let me repeat again, knowledge of rules of grammar and syntax, usage and punctuation that is number one. Number two, knowledge of vocabulary and conventions of use. Now having said all that I would like to remind you that good writing depends upon more than grammatical correctness, so just do not think that if you got a sentence grammatically correct it is effective. Sentences, paragraphs and longer compositions may follow grammatical rules accurately and may still not be effective. So the ability to write well comes down to how well you construct sentences. You can have the cleverest of ideas but if you have no control over your sentences the results will be disappointing. Now I said control over your sentences. Control over sentences means the ability to employ different kinds of sentences, different kinds of sentence patterns or forms. Now our students are generally weak in sentence structure. In the coming weeks you shall have practice in sentence construction. A sentence as you know is a group of words containing a subject which is a noun or a noun equivalent or a pronoun and a verb which is a word showing action or state of being. So a sentence is a group of words containing a subject and a verb in which something is expressed about something else. The sentence is the equivalent in words of the complete thought from your mind and it is with sentences that is complete thoughts that we compose paragraphs and from which we construct essays, letters, reports, books, chapters etc etc. So in order to write well you must be able to construct good effective sentences. In today's lesson you will learn about types of sentences and have practice in all types of sentences. We will give you practice in composing sentences. Sentences can be classified according to the way they are constructed and according to their purpose. There are two ways of classifying sentences. One according to their structure, the way they are constructed and second according to their purpose the meaning that they are conveying. We will first consider sentences according to their meaning. Now to make a statement or assertion or declaration look at the two examples. He is a teacher, it is cloudy, these are statements, assertions or declarations. The second type is to ask a question, what day is it, how old are you, where are you from. Third one is to issue commands, go in, stop this, these are commands to utter exclamations if only it would stop raining, that is an exclamation. To offer greetings and other expressions which have no definite forms, example you have words like good morning, hello, right. Now we look at the second way in which sentences can be classified and that is according to their structure. This is determined by the kind and the number of clauses or statements in them. I will use the word statement because some people do not like the word, the use of the word clause because this is how it was in the old grammar. They like to classify sentences, divide them up into clauses and nowadays people do not like to use these old words, but I will use the word statements oblique clauses, so you will understand that I am also referring to the word clauses. Now depending on how it is constructed, sentences in English are either simple, complex, compound or compound complex. So we can say that there are four basic kinds of sentences in English, actually it is three you know, but I have also included the fourth one and the compound complex sentences in English. So we can say that there are four basic kinds of sentences. Now we need to distinguish these four kinds from each other, the first one the simple sentence, any sentence however long or short that has only one subject, one subject verb combination and expresses a complete thought is a simple sentence consisting of one subject and one verb example, sparks fly upwards that is one sentence. The other one the tired, dirty and foot sore tourists, straggled warily across the bridge up the hill and finally into the rest house. Now notice in these two sentences, the first sentence has only three words and the second one has twenty words, but because the second sentence which has twenty words it has one subject, the subject is the word tourists and one finite verb and that is the verb straggled. This long sentence with twenty words is considered is classified as a simple sentence. So it is not a question of the number of words that are there in the sentence. You can have a sentence of two words, a sentence of three words, sparks fly upward three words, but it is one sentence and you have got the other one with twenty words that is also a simple sentence. Now a simple sentence may have more than one subject, it is not necessary that it should have one subject it can also have more than one and take the sentence lamb and haslet wrote charming essays. Another example towels and bedsheets sway on the clothes line. Now here you have two subjects lamb and haslet, two subjects towels and bedsheets, two subjects right. The third thing to remember about simple sentences is that it may have more than one verb, a simple sentence may have more than one verb. Example the children splashed and squealed in the stream, the children splashed and squealed in the cold water of the stream. The second example they were born in the same year 1950 attended the same university and wrote for the same newspaper. Now notice in these two sentences there are more than one verb. In the first one it is the verb splashed and squealed. In the second example you have got the verb born attended wrote. The fourth thing about simple sentences is that a simple sentence may even have several subjects and verbs. It may have several subjects and verbs. Example the sentence every Saturday night Shama, Salman and Minko go to the movies, eat at a Chinese restaurant and play cards at the Jumkhana club. Now notice in that sentence there are three subjects Shama, Salman and Minko and there are three verbs go, eat and play right alright. Now let us practice this a simple sentence. On your screen you have a number of sentences. Complete the sentences by filling in one or more subjects and one or more verbs. Number one, my favorite sport fill it with any subject. You can have cricket but please make a note that the verb is in the singular is my favorite sport so you will have to fill in only the subject. Number two, the batsman the ball here is the verb. Number three, the gave me the ball gave me the bill. You have to fill in the noun you have done close exercises with me so it should not be a problem this is a very easy practice exercise. Number four, a suitcase of the van and into a ditch two verbs fell off the van and you can have rolled into a ditch or any other. Number five, two verbs should not be difficult let us move on to the compound sentence. Now the compound sentence is made up of two or more complete thoughts. Two or more complete thoughts example Simon wants biryani for dinner but she forgot to buy meat that is one sentence. The second one is his life was not an easy one nor was it eventful now there are in each of these examples there are two complete thoughts and they are joined by a word which is known as a joining word or conjunction. You can use the word joining word you can use the word conjunction or coordinating conjunction. So the process of joining together two ideas of equal importance is known as coordination and the words over there were but and the word nor right a little bit more about joining words in the two examples that you saw the two simple sentences have been connected by using a comma plus the joining words known as coordinating conjunctions that can be used to connect to ideas. You will see a table on your screen and the table explains all the joining words and what they mean what they stand for and means in addition but means however. So means as a result for means because yet means however or is used to show alternatives and nor is used to show a second negative statement right now you will see some examples and look at the uses of the joining coordinating words in the sentence the driver failed to signal and he went through a stop sign the driver failed to signal and he went through a stop sign now over there and means in addition that is the driver not only he failed to signal but in addition he went through the stop sign a very familiar phenomena in our part of the world because people are not very particular in following the traffic signs the second example I was very tired but I still had two hours of assigned reading now in that sentence but over there means however and the meaning is I was very tired however I still had two hours of assigned reading the third one the meal was not well cooked so we sent it back to the kitchen so over here means as a result because the meal was not well cooked as a result we sent it back to the kitchen. Another example she works at home for she wants to be with her two young children the use of the joining word for in that sentence means because it means that she works at home because she wants to be with her two young children and the next sentence my friend loves sewing yet she decided to take up science in college and yet over there means however my friend loves sewing however she decided to take up science in college and the last sentence you can write with us to the stadium or you can go with someone else or in that sentence introduces an alternative choice it means you can write with us to the stadium alternatively you can go with someone else and sorry this is the last sentence and in the last sentence Saad does not eat meat nor does he eat fish now nor over there introduces a negative statement that has been added to the first negative statement and two completely independent thoughts but joined together with the conjunction or the joining word nor it means Saad does not eat meat that is one thought the other is he does not eat fish so the two have been joined together by the joining word nor now note how each compound sentence is punctuated a comma comes right after the first complete thought and before the joining word. Let us have some more practice practice two here use a comma and a suitable joining word to combine each pair of simple sentences into a compound sentence and three words are given you choose from the following three words and but and so the city sanitary workers are on strike sentence number one the streets are littered with garbage it should not take long number two the computer was on no one was working on at it the computer was on no one was working at it join these two by choosing one of the three words given number three a storm was approaching quickly the mountain climber found shelter in a cave you have got two independent sentences join them with one of the three words given you should not be difficult number four dad likes coffee for breakfast mom prefers tea so join them that was practice in compound sentences now we will turn to the third type of sentence and that is the complex sentence as you have already learned a compound sentence is made up of two or more complete thoughts each thought should stand alone as an independent statement a complex sentence on the other hand includes one independent statement or clause and at least one dependent statement which cannot stand alone example look at the example when the century began there were many coffee houses in the city now in that sentence there is one part that is independent right an independent statement which can stand on its own and there is the other part which is a dependent statement and it cannot stand by itself take another example all the many trees were uprooted our house escaped the storm again two statements in one one is independent and one part is dependent the dependent part depends on the independent part now the second statement in this sentence the last sentence that I read is independent it can stand alone as a simple sentence take the first one there were many coffee houses in the city right there were many coffee houses in the city that is independent when the century began that is a dependent statement and in the same way in the second one our house escaped the storm that is dependent independent and although many true trees were uprooted that is the dependent statement now there are several ways in which a dependent statement or clause may be used in a sentence you can use it in the adverbial sense you can use it as an adjectival and you can use it as a noun look at these three examples again when the century began there were many coffee houses in the city now here the independent statement is there were many coffee houses in the city the the dependent statement is when the century began and when the century began that phrase is adverbial it is an adverbial phrase because it is talking about a time period look at the second one you can have dependent statements or dependent clauses of three kinds adverbial adjectival or noun look at the second one men who wanted to meet their friends visited these shops men visited these shops that is the independent part of the sentence the dependent part is who wanted to meet their friends and that phrase is adjectival that is an adjectival sorry an adjectival clause and the third one we know that these gatherings led eventually to the formation of a new political party and over here the independent statement is we know and that these gatherings led eventually to the formation of a new political party that is a noun clause that statement is a noun state a noun clause right now dependent statements also begin with dependent words such as although the dependent clause or the dependent statement can also include a subject and a verb take this sentence although many nearby trees were uprooted our house escaped the storm now the dependent statement although many nearby trees were uprooted the subject of the dependent statement is trees so the dependent statement or the dependent clause can have a subject and it can even have a verb and the verb in that one is were uprooted now look at another sentence as the madman made demands on the phone police surrounded the building this is also a complex sentence one part can stand independently as a simple sentence police surrounded the building that part is an independent statement right the other part of the sentence has a subject and a verb but it begins with a dependent verb a dependent word and therefore it cannot stand alone and the word was as as the madman made demands on the phone the use of the dependent word as has turned that statement into a dependent statement look at another complex sentence see if you can spot the independent and dependent parts of the sentence example the Zala will not sell her old gramophone even if she is offered a large sum of money in the examples that you have just seen the words although as and even if they introduce statements that are dependent there are various other dependent words also known as subordinating conjunctions go back and look at the previous examples again to understand how to punctuate complex sentences look at the first example as the madman made demands on the phone comma police surrounded the building second the Zala will not sell her old gramophone even if she is offered a large sum of money now notice that when the dependent statement or clause comes first it is followed by a comma when the dependent idea comes last it is generally not separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma there is a list of dependent words these are some of the dependent words and you are all familiar with them after although as because before even if even though if since though unless until when whenever where wherever when whether and while right now we will practice so that you get an idea of how complex sentences are written remember that every dependent statements should have a subject and a verb you have got four sentences over there can you fill them up with dependent statements I will give you some time to fill them now the first one is the the cried you can complete the sentence by adding a dependent statement or dependent clause remember your dependent statement should have a verb and a subject you can complete it by in this way you can say did he cried when her son graduated number two although I was too tied to go for a swim now the complete part is I was too tied to go for a swim you have been given the connecting the dependent word and the word is although and you have to complete it with a statement that has a subject and a verb you can write I had finished my work although I had finished my work I was too tired to go for a swim the third sentence because I set because dash I set my alarm for 4 a.m. So, how will you complete this fill it with a dependent clause the dependent word is already given you and the word is because I set my alarm because I had to leave for Sialkot the next day I set my alarm for 4 a.m. I had to leave for Sialkot the next day that is a statement which has a subject and a verb, but it begins with a dependent word and the dependent word was because number four awesome did some research in the library right. So, use a dependent statement to complete that and you can use any of the dependent words given in the list you can say awesome did some research in the library before he wrote his term paper you can have the word before he wrote his term paper right. Now, let us do another exercise for practice sake here you combine the first two sentences into one sentence and combine the last two sentences into another sentence that is you have been given four sentences combine the first two into one sentence and combine the last two into another sentence and you can use any of the joining words and dependent words mind you you have been given two sets of words there is one set of word which is known as joining and those are words like and but so and the other is dependent words which are words like after although because when now take the first example it had rain for many days the sun finally came out the children wanted a picnic the ground was too wet combine the first two make one sentence then combine the other two the last two and make another sentence I can give you a hint you can use the word after to combine the first two sentences after it had rained for many days the sun finally came out and for the second the last two you can use but to combine the last two sentences the children wanted a picnic but the ground was too wet right. Let us look at sentence number two sentence number two again four sentences are given you combine the first two into one and the last two into one I can give you a hint use although to combine the first two and use because to combine the next the last two sentences let us look at the last type of sentence and that is the compound complex sentence this consists of a compound sentence which consists of two or more independent statements or clauses and at least one dependent statement or clause look at the following sentences which are samples of compound complex sentences look at the first example the Ravel Lake was impressive but Shahid thought that Lake Sefal Maluk was really more beautiful than he had ever seen look at the next one the crowd of laborers had been standing patiently in the water for three hours and a great shout of relief arose when the rescuers finally appeared now these were two examples of compound complex sentences you can have two compound sentences and one dependent statement notice in both these sentences there are two compound sentences right the Ravel Lake was impressive but Shahid thought that Lake Maluk really more beautiful right and this is a compound joined by the word the joining word but and the dependent clause is then any other lake he had ever seen right now you can do the same thing for the next one now let us recap what we have learned today in today's lesson a number of statements are given you you have to choose the correct one this is a simple test for you in a compound sentence the statements clauses are joined together by and you are given three choices which one is the correct one just go over the lecture we said in a compound sentence the statements are joined together by a dependent word a common adjoining word or a semicolon the correct answer is B number two a statement a dependent statement or clause includes three choices a dependent word B comma and adjoining word C semicolon the correct answer would be a dependent statement includes a dependent word the choice a is correct number three which sentence out of the three given you is a simple sentence a the fire alarm sounded B when the fire alarm sounded she was in bed C the fire alarm sounded and they evacuated the building you have to choose the simple sentence and over there number a is the simple sentence number four out of the three sentences given you which one is a compound sentence look for the joining word and you will have the correct answer a b c out of those three it is number a and you have the word the joining word and the room is painted yellow and it has a big window right and number five which sentence is a complex sentence jack a jack did a u turn B when jack did a u turn his bike skidded see jack did a u turn and he fell off the bike out of these it is sentence B which is a complex sentence now the last one which sentence is a compound complex sentence and you have four a b c d look at them carefully which one is a compound complex sentence and it is number D now in today's lesson we worked on different sentence types and we did some practice and I am sure you made the right choices when you were asked to do so and we looked at different kinds of sentences and what is it that makes them different I hope you you would be able to recognize sentences as simple compound complex sentences when you come across them in your reading and it will also help you construct more effective sentences Allah Hafiz and see you next time.