 Previous ethical theories have put forward universal principles of morals, virtues and justice. From the 1980s, an alternative paradigm emerged that criticized the dominant perspectives. This paradigm is called feminist ethics, or care ethics, and it basically emphasizes connection to others. In this paradigm, women's nurturing relationships are taken as a model for care, where everyone has responsibilities and an obligation to care for others. In the words of Daniel Engster, caring is understood as everything we do directly to help others to meet their basic needs, develop or sustain their basic capabilities, and alleviate or avoid pain or suffering in an attentive, responsive and respectful matter. Feminist ethics call for more attention to the moral issues that arise in the so-called private world, which relate to housework and taking care of children, the disabled and the elderly. One of the main criticisms by feminist ethicists was that current ethical theories were not actually universal, as they may not apply to everyone. The publication of, in a different voice, Psychological Theory and Women's Development, in 1982, can be seen as the start of this movement. This publication consisted of a study by developmental psychologist Carol Gilligan on how women's ways of analyzing and resolving dilemmas differed from men's. At that time, general ideas about morality were based on formal and abstract notions of rights, rules, and justice. For instance, according to Lawrence Colbert's study Among Men, humans start out as individual moral agents who are separate from others and who then independently learn moral principles to obey. However, Gilligan noticed that Colbert's description of moral development did not always apply to women. She argued that women's moral development was much more characterized by a morality of responsibility and care. This moral development already begins with a self who is connected to others and whose moral goals are to maintain such connectedness. Feminist theorist Nell Nodding had a similar viewpoint and argued that ethical theories were too male-centered by focusing on reason and law and justice, which were thought to be inherently male values and not enough on feminine values such as empathy, relatedness, and responsiveness. This is not to say that justice was no longer important, but justice was seen as an extension of caring. As Nodding argues in her book Starting at Home, justice itself is dependent on caring about and caring about is in turn dependent on caring for. Although feminist ethics or care ethics were founded in the idea that men and women differ in their ethical and moral decision-making, this perspective prescribes how both women and men can engage in decision-making that is characterized by putting oneself in someone else's shoes and acting on feelings of empathy. In fact, feminist ethics has been criticized for being too female biased and for doing exactly the same as the dominant perspectives they criticize. That is, focusing on the biological and social differences between men and women rather than on a universal human being. Now, third way for postmodern feminism also emphasizes how women and men differ amongst each other in their tendencies to be rational and caring. So, what does this mean for communication ethics? Well, first of all, in order to be ethical, we must be able to take the perspective of someone with a different gender, race, nationality, educational background, or class. It means we must engage in self-reflection and be aware that we are prone to errors and biases based on our own social context. It means being open to feedback and objectively listening to the viewpoints of others. Government censorship or other legal action is not a solution. Ethical dilemmas should be resolved through engaging in critical conversations and informed debate. For communication research, it means choosing the topics that have societal relevance and benefits, listening to one's participants and stakeholders, and being open to their suggestions. It also involves making sure that research findings reach stakeholders and a wider audience, preferably while the research is still being carried out. Most importantly, feminist ethics are about listening attentively and making sure that what one communicates to the world does not harm others by stereotyping, denigrating, or excluding subgroups. This does not only apply to women or women's interests. All major problems and ethical dilemmas have an impact on both women and men, and feminist ethics are about understanding and wanting to correct any problems of power inequities and oppression.