 Hi, my name is Monty Johnson. I teach philosophy at the University of California, San Diego And this is a lecture on Aristotle's politics book eight, which is about the education of the citizens in the perfect state I'm using the translation of the politics by Benjamin Jowett Oxford 1921, which is in the public domain Here's an outline of the book overall in chapter one Aristotle discusses the importance of education to the Constitution to any Constitution In chapter two, he discusses and distinguishes between liberal or free education and Illiberal education in chapter three. He discusses the customary branches of education and their purposes in chapter four He discusses the purpose of physical education specifically that is gymnastic exercises and in chapters five to seven he discusses the purpose of musical education both performance and appreciation So the first chapter about the importance of education to the Constitution Aristotle couldn't be stronger or more direct quote None will doubt that the legislator should direct his attention above all to the education of youth for the neglect of education does harm to the Constitution and He fills this out specifically by saying that quote the citizen should be molded to suit the form of government under which He lives for each government has a peculiar character which originally formed and which continues to preserve it The character of a democracy creates democracy and the character of oligarchy creates oligarchy and always the better the character The better the government So if anyone cares about creating or sustaining a democracy you better care about education and educating people to preserve that democracy and any other Constitutional type including Aristotle's best regime Now notice that nowhere in the politics does Aristotle discuss or even mention Any benefit of education for individuals specifically Nor does he discuss whether certain individuals or even the whole population might Benefit from a different kind of education than the one that is supported by the state For example, perhaps I live in a democracy But I individually would benefit more from an aristocratic kind of education Aristotle says nothing about that situation or perhaps some people would benefit more from a democratic style education Even though they exist in an oligarchy, none of that is of concern to Aristotle here His perspective is entirely from the side of importance of education in supporting and sustaining the Constitution most states he acknowledges failed to support their constitutions because they neglect education But it's as if individual motives for education like getting a job or even intellectual enjoyment are irrelevant to the political theory of education, which is only concerned with how in education inculcates in its citizens the kinds of virtues that That constitution holds to the good life to consist in Now Aristotle argues that education should be public Here's his argument first for the exercise of any capability or art a previous training and habituation are required Therefore for the practice of virtue so practicing a virtue like courage or temperance or justice or even wisdom Requires training and habituation and its actions are like with any art like with architecture For example or painting where you need training and habituation The second premise is that the whole city has one end and as we've seen that end is a certain kind of virtue Well, if you combine both of those premises Then third it is manifest that education should be one and the same for all and that it should be public And fourth he specifically says and it shouldn't be private It shouldn't be as at present when everyone looks after his own children separately and gives them separate instruction of the sort Which he thinks best the training and things which are of common interest should be the same for all So it's crucial that the city has exactly one end and it needs to bring that end about and Since all of the citizens are just parts of that one city then all of them will need to be educated towards that one end and So strongly does he believe this that he goes so far as to say quote neither must we suppose that any one of the citizens Belongs to himself for they all belong to the state and Are each of them a part of the state and the care of each part is inseparable from the care of the whole Now as Aristotle says in chapter two There is widespread disagreement about both the ends and the means of education Having concluded that as he says education should be regulated by law and should be an affair of the state In fact, it should be public and the same for all he next announces The topic what should be the character of this public education? Now there is widespread disagreement about the end of education Even if we agree that it's for the sake of the good life or happiness Some think that education should be for the sake of utility for example making jobs or money Others think it should be for the sake of virtue among those who agree that it's for the sake of virtue There may still be a disagreement about what kind of virtue courage and glory and war Self-control and justice or in a little intellectual virtues like science or wisdom and There is also widespread disagreement even among those who agree about the end What are the best means to educating for that end and that is because they disagree about the nature of virtue And so how it can be produced and inculcated in individual citizens Now Aristotle distinguishes between what we now call education and job training And the way he distinguishes this is a discussion of liberal and illiberal occupations So he begins by saying that all have to agree that all citizens should be taught those things That are useful which are also really necessary So nobody could disagree with that if they're necessary and useful, of course, they should be taught but Aristotle argues not everyone should be taught all useful things. This is because some useful things are produced by liberal Illiberal or unfree Occupations learning these kinds of useful things would vulgarize the students So some useful things he says shouldn't be taught to free people at all quote and any Occupation art or science which makes the body or soul or mind of the freemen Less fit for the practice or exercise of virtue is vulgar wherefore we call those arts vulgar which tend to deform the body and Likewise all paid jobs for they absorb and degrade the mind Let that sink in Aristotle says all paid jobs absorb and degrade the mind So his ideal is that the happy citizens should not have paid jobs should not have to work paid jobs if you're someone who has to work a paid job you're in an unfortunate situation in which at least your mind and your virtue will be Stunted and possibly corrupted, but also your body could be affected by it and so even though those those Occupations that require those kinds of things are useful. They shouldn't be taught to free people Other useful things have both liberal and Illiberal aspects these subjects should be taught but only to a certain extent Because if one attends to them too closely in order to retain attain perfection in them The same evil will follow as in the case of the entirely illiberal occupations the criterion Aristotle offers to distinguish whether an Occupation is liberal or illiberal is whether the activity is done for its own sake and that of one's friends Or if it's done for the sake of others quote The object also which a man sets before him makes a great difference if he does or learns anything for his own sake or the sake of his friends or With a view to excellence the action will not appear illiberal But if it is done for the sake of others the very same action will be thought menial and servile So on this view work done for a corporation for a wage for example would be considered menial and servile While the same activity Undertaken for one's own ends would be considered free So compare the contemporary distinction between training and education Training like job training prepares the mind or the body to be useful for someone else's purpose someone else's Making profit for example Education on the other hand prepares the mind to be useful for one's own purposes and to Deliberate about those purposes totally different things education and training although nowadays the distinction is often overlooked In the third chapter Aristotle discusses the customary branches of education which are first Reading writing and drawing which are regarded as useful for the purposes of life in a variety of ways Aristotle doesn't say much about these here He is especially interested in the ways that they're valuable without being useful for example He says the children may be taught drawing not to prevent They're making mistakes in their own purchases or in order that they may not be imposed upon in the buying or selling of articles But perhaps rather because it makes them judges of the beauty of the human form To be always seeking after the useful does not become free and exalted souls Now in addition to reading writing and drawing Aristotle discusses Gymnastic exercises which are thought to infuse courage. He believes that and so he thinks that those will be Clearly a part of the main educational system and he discusses them in the next chapter for Finally music Now although the core idea of music relates to harmonies melodies and rhythms that are sung or played on instruments The Greek term actually means something much wider perhaps even encompassing all of culture itself And this is because Greek poetry including epic and lyric poetry and drama like tragedy and comedy was always accompanied by music in the core sense And as he discusses in the poetics dancing is another closely related phenomenon to this Aristotle discusses musical education for the remainder of this chapter and in chapters 5 to 7 Now the rest of chapter 3 Aristotle discusses leisure amusement and pleasure He raises a doubt about music Concerning music a doubt may be raised in our own day Most men cultivate it for the sake of pleasure But originally it was included in education because nature herself as is often been said Requires that we should be able not only to work well, but to use leisure well for as I must repeat once again The first principle of all action is leisure Both are required but leisure is better than occupation and is its end and therefore the question must be asked What ought we to do when at leisure? So in book 7 we saw Aristotle argue that just as the end of war is peace So the end of toil and work is to have leisure, but what do we do once we attain leisure? Well, one thing we do is listen to music and this is one reason why music is very important But its purpose is not mere amusement Aristotle says quote clearly we ought not to be amusing ourselves for then amusement would be the end of life But if this is inconceivable and amusement is needed more amid serious occupations than in other times For he who is hard at work has need of relaxation and amusement gives relaxation Whereas occupation is always accompanied with exertion and effort. We should introduce amusements only at suitable times and they should be our medicines for the emotion which they create in the soul is a relaxation and from the pleasure we obtain rest But leisure itself gives pleasure and happiness and enjoyment of life Which are experienced not by the busy man But by those who have leisure for he who is occupied has in view some end which he has not attained But happiness is an end since all men deem it to be accompanied with pleasure and not with pain so it's quite serious business this relaxation and Pleasure that we derive from music it allows us to pursue greater Unleasured things toil and war and that sort of thing as their end They enable those other important things in order to bring them about But different kinds of pleasure Aristotle argues are enjoyed by different kinds of people and this varies according to their habits of Course the pleasure of the best man will be the best and spring from the noblest sources But it's clear he says then that there are branches of learning and education Which we must study merely with a view to leisure spent in intellectual activity And these are to be valued for their own sake Whereas those kinds of knowledge which are useful in business are to be deemed Merely necessary and exist for the sake of other things Now why was music introduced into education in the first place even if it has those kinds of ends Why was it introduced into education? I mean music is neither necessary The way the other customary branches are or any other fast of education you can think of so reading and writing are useful in Money-making in the management of a household in the acquisition of knowledge in the political life and drawing is useful for a more Correctment judgment of the works of artists and gymnastics is useful because it gives health and strength and courage and so forth But music doesn't seem to do any of those things What remains is the idea that the use of music for intellectual enjoyment of in leisure Which is in fact evidently the reason for its introduction This being one of the ways in which it is thought that a freeman should pass his leisure So it was originally introduced in order to make sure that leisure time was enjoyable and Was credibly enjoyable engaged in something that is Intellectually stimulating and is therefore evident then he says that there is a sort of education in which parents should train their sons Not as being useful or necessary, but because it is liberal or noble So Aristotle actually removes in part he goes so far with this argument is to remove the idea that music is useful It's it's merely a final end and that that seems to be his account of the original idea Why it was introduced is only for the sake of its ends Now there are still outstanding issues like what kinds of musical education are there and which should be taught to whom And so Aristotle will pick these issues up again in chapter 5 Before then however in chapter 4 he discusses the purpose of gymnastic education So Aristotle holds that the body develops before the mind and therefore the body should be trained before the mind He recommends that boys should be trained in both gymnastics and wrestling and this is kind of a scheme for physical education He criticizes the Spartan educational system because quote they brutalize their children by laborious Exercises which they think will make them courageous and quote They treat this is the ultimate end of all education But Aristotle does not think education should be primarily directed at cultivating the specific virtue In fact, he thinks it should be aimed at cultivating other virtues more intellectual virtues Now he points out that even wild animals and savage barbarians It turns out can outdo even those who have been trained in the Spartan way at Brutality and courage understood in terms of that kind of violent activity and Aristotle Attributes the Spartan success not to the superiority of their educational system But to the fact that they trained systematically at war when their rivals did not Now in obsessively focusing on this kind of training Spartans in fact vulgarized their citizens and their children making them capable of engaging only In the kind of politics which is directly related to war The fact that they have rivals even in this area now at the time Aristotle's writing Shows the worthlessness of their overall education system Which does nothing to show them for example how to enjoy Leisure which is more an end of education and of the state than is war So Aristotle argues and warns against this kind of excessive gymnastic training and he Compares it to athletic training which involves severe dieting and painful toll Which he thinks can impair the growth of the body and he proves this by pointing to Olympic victors He says not more than two or three of them have gained a prize as boys and his men They're early training in severe gymnastic exercises Exhausted their constitutions can see a similar thing in people who complain about the over emphasis of athletics say in high schools Where not more than two of three of them are going to go on to become professional athletes, but the Intensive training may inhibit their Mental development in other ways and may exhaust their constitutions Aristotle oddly claims that physical and mental activity should occur in discreet periods of life Quote men ought not to labor at the same time with their minds and with their bodies for the two kinds of labor are opposed to one another The labor of the body impedes the mind and the labor of the mind the body Now turning from gymnastics then which he thinks has an important role, but should be strictly limited Now Aristotle turns to musical education. What is the purpose of musical education nowadays earlier? He discussed why it was originally introduced purely for this intellectual stimulation in leisure But he now says that it's not easy to determine the nature of music and why anyone should have a knowledge of it So here he considers three possible reasons why musical education might be cultivated one For amusement for the sake of amusement and relaxation like sleep or drinking which are not good in themselves But are pleasant so music would then be like sleeping drinking and dancing Which are pleasurable activities we engage in but really aren't their own ends second musical education could be for the sake of virtue and this he actually Describes as being for the sake of education so music Conduces to virtue on the grounds that it can form our minds and habituate us to true pleasures as our bodies are made to be Gymnastic to be of a certain character Music would thus be like gymnastics, but instead of improving the body it would improve the mind and the third Possibility which he distinguishes both from cultivation of virtue and from amusement He says it musical education could be for intellectual enjoyment of leisure and mental cultivation Now although Aristotle thinks that all three of these are in fact valid reasons to support musical education He thinks the first and third can be ruled out in the case of youth education the amusement factor can be ruled out because as he quite sternly says learning is no amusement, but is accompanied with pain and the idea of intellectual enjoyment can be ruled out because youths are too Imperfect with respect to their intellect and they can't attain the end of intellectual enjoyment yet so the answer of why introduce musical education into primary Education nowadays seems to be that it should be cultivated for the sake of virtue But if it is just being cultivated for the sake of virtue why teach musical performance and not just musical appreciation This is the next subject that Aristotle Takes up why should children be taught to perform like singing and playing instruments instead of just Hearing others play music Aristotle mentions that persians and medians are educated in musical Appreciation by listening to others perform Similarly the Spartans without learning music nevertheless claimed to be able to correctly judge as they say good and bad melodies The problem is that musical performance is dangerously close to manual labor For this reason the gods like Zeus are never depicted as Singing or playing the lyre professional musicians are considered Aristotle and people of his class to be vulgar and Aristotle says that quote no freemen would play or sing unless he were intoxicated or ingest So the answer to this problem Why should we teach musical performance? Can't we get these virtuous benefits of music by just teaching people how to appreciate music without getting their hands dirty actually Playing or singing themselves The answer to this will come after an account of how musical training serves the ends of amusement and intellectual enjoyment as well as education i.e. inculcation of virtue So music amusement pleasure and intellectual enjoyment Aristotle says that amusement is for the sake of relaxation and Relaxation is of necessity sweet for it is the remedy of pain caused by toil and intellectual enjoyment is Universally acknowledged to contain an element not only of the noble but of the pleasant for happiness is made up of both and all agree the music is one of the most pleasant things This is why it is present in social gatherings and entertainments because it makes the hearts of men glad So on this ground alone Aristotle says we may assume that the youth ought to be trained in music For innocent pleasures are not only in harmony with the perfect end of life But they also provide relaxation and whereas men rarely attain the end But often rest by the way and amuse themselves not only with a view to a further end But also for the pleasure's sake it may be well at times to let them find a refreshment in music But Aristotle next warns against taking this kind of amusement as the final end And he says some people get confused about this and think that all I need to do is Promote a kind of lifestyle so that I can have as much amusement as possible. He doesn't think that's right He doesn't think that's virtuous. He doesn't think that results in the good life But he does concede that this Amusement enjoyment and pleasure especially in intellectual kind of pleasure taken in the appreciation of music is worthwhile And and the citizen should be educated for it The more important reason is the effect of music on character in virtue The fact that music produces pleasure for all indicates that it has a kind of natural effect Quote the pleasure given by music is natural and therefore adapted to all ages and Characters end of quote this suggests to Aristotle that music might have some Influence over the character and the soul because it's tied in with the natural aspects of the character and the soul in In fact, he says it must have such an influence if characters are affected by it And it's clear that they are affected by it that they are so affected is proved in many ways Not least by the power which the songs of Olympus exercise for beyond question They inspire enthusiasm and enthusiasm is an emotion of the ethical part of the soul So he's referring to a specific Musician Olympus whose compositions were widespread Plato and other people point out that they are capable of Inspiring and making people Enthusiastic and have this direct effect on the emotion of the soul We can think of the effects on Emotion of other kinds of music that we listen to for example jazz music or rap or something like that which affects our Emotions and our enthusiasm In generally says when men hear imitations even apart from the rhythms and tunes themselves They're feelings move in sympathy since then music is a pleasure and virtue consists in rejoicing and loving and hating a right There is clearly nothing which we are so much concerned to acquire and to cultivate as the power of forming right judgments and of taking Delight in good dispositions and noble actions So in this sense given that it has such an important effect on character and that's the main thing We're concerned about there's almost nothing that we're more concerned to discuss and This is because music has this power of imitation of Representing character and also accompanies other representations of character for example in dramas or in poetry And Aristotle says that rhythm and melody themselves Supply imitations of emotions like anger and gentleness But also courage and temperance and of all the qualities contrary to these and of the other qualities of character Which hardly falls short of the actual affections as we know from our own experience for in listening to such strains Our souls undergo a change So Aristotle argues that music can have a profound impact on character and thus virtue He says that even in mere melodies There's an imitation of character for the musical modes differ essentially from one another and those who hear them are differently affected by each Now this term mode musical mode we use the Latin term mode to translate the Greek term harmonia Literally harmony, but technically we are referring to a specific type of musical scale that has certain harmonic and melodic Characteristics the name of the music modes refer vaguely to regions from which they supposedly originate referring to Detailed treatments of the subject by philosophers writing about music Aristotle describe describes the affects of the various modes as follows the mixolydian He says makes men sad and grave the relax modes in feeble the mind the Dorian mode Produces a moderate and settled temper and the Phrygian mode inspires enthusiasm Aristotle says that similar principles apply to different kinds of rhythm Some of them have a character of rest others of motion and of these latter again Some have a more vulgar others a nobler movement and he concludes enough has been shown Has been said to show that music has a power of forming the character and should therefore be introduced into the education of the young But again the question Admitting that music should be introduced to the education of the young Should children be taught to sing and play so should the education be in performance or appreciation Well The reason to teach them to play is because it's difficult if not impossible for those who do not perform to be good judges Of the performance of others We conclude that they should be taught music in such a way as to become not only critics but also performers Now the responses to the objection that musical performance is a kind of manual labor And so practicing music will make the students vulgar Aristotle concedes that quote it is quite possible that certain methods of teaching and learning music do really do Have a degrading effect But two things he says can mitigate this danger First they can be taught to play when very young Just enough to gain the ability to appreciate and criticize musical playing of others But then relieved from practicing musical instruments or singing when they're older Quote the right measure will be attained if students of music stop short of the arts Which are practiced in professional contests and do not seek to acquire those fantastic marvels of execution Which are now the fashion in such contests and from these have passed into education end of quote The second way to counteract the vulgarizing effect of music Is to limit The kinds of music that are played so employing only the noble Melodies rhythms and instruments when training them to play as opposed to that so-called common part of music in which Aristotle says Every slave or child and even some animals find pleasure In particular Aristotle goes on to give a diatribe against employing flute playing in education Now the last major point to be discussed is the political use of these different kinds of music so Aristotle says Now we see that music is produced by melody and rhythm and we ought to know what influence these have respectively on Education and whether we should prefer excellence in melody or excellence in rhythm But as the subject has been very well treated by many musicians of the present day and also by Philosophers who have had considerable experience of musical education To these we would refer the more exact student of the subject We shall only speak of it now after the manner of the legislator stating the general principles So this is the politics of music. This is music in so far as it concerns the politician and the legislator Now for that person has to recognize the different modes Uh different kinds of harmony will be appropriate to different ends Again, we've already discussed many times that music has several possible benefits Education i.e. inculcating virtue enjoyment relaxation and recreation Aristotle also mentions here Pergation or catharsis, but he doesn't explain the term Instead he promises to explain it in another work called the poetics But although he employs the term there, he doesn't explain it Accordingly, this is one of the most controversial concepts in Aristotle's philosophy and specifically his aesthetics But here is what he says about the other effects of the modes first relaxed modes Such as the lidion should be employed Contrary to what play-doh says the fact that they produce gentler Melodies is useful for the enjoyment and relaxation of the elderly But Aristotle also says that such relaxed modes could be useful For entertaining the working class So he says that there should quote be contests and exhibitions instituted for the relaxation Of even a vulgar crowd composed of mechanics laborers and the like Now because their minds are perverted from the natural state They enjoy what he calls perverted modes and highly strong and unnaturally colored melodies unquote in general Uh the those who are in the process of being educated and those who are already educated should avoid both performing and listening to such music, but it still has its purposes within the city Now the so-called modes of passion may be admitted when we're listening to the performance of others The uh These refer to modes that have strong effects on those souls who are prone to strong feelings like pity or fear And they affect them like the way sacred melodies affect people they throw into religious frenzy Who Aristotle says are thus quote restored as though they had found healing and purgation Such people can have their emotions purged by listening to music in such modes So that their souls are lightened and delighted And the modes affecting them are thus sometimes called purgative melodies which give an innocent Pleasure not just to people who are especially emotional, but to all of mankind Finally the modes of action or ethical modes are what should be employed in education That is in the inculcation of virtue So Aristotle criticizes Plato for allowing only the Phrygian mode Arguing that in fact the Phrygian mode is not a really an ethical mode, but more of a passionate mode He prefers the Dorian mode Saying quote whereas we say that the extreme should be avoided in the mean followed And whereas the Dorian is a mean between the other modes it is evident that our youth should be taught the Dorian music So this is a lot like the way we still Prescribe and prescribe what kinds of music the youth should listen to Because we think that it has an impact on their education and in fact on their souls and character So that's all Aristotle says about education in book eight It's not clear whether book eight is complete and thus whether the politics itself is complete One may have expected more discussion of education for example more on reading writing and drawing Or on the other areas of training or education whether required by the state Or even by philosophy What does Aristotle think of what we would call higher education for example? Here i'll just make a couple of brief comments by way of conclusion First it's clear from book seven chapter two in many other texts that Aristotle thinks the state should support such philosophical activity As an end of the state perhaps is the ultimate and highest end certainly the end of the best state And the institutions of the best state which are discussed in book seven to eight Are all structured in order to bring it about that philosophical activity and even a philosophical way of life is possible At least for a few wise men The other virtues such as courage and temperance and even other intellectual virtues are available to all of the citizens And the other benefits of civic and political life are available to all the other inhabitants of the city or the state But in what remains the politics Aristotle does not discuss How direct or indirect the state support for or intervention in philosophical activity should be Aristotle does not discuss higher education for example in mathematics natural science or philosophy generally He doesn't even discuss education in ethics and politics So that it's not clear exactly how other than by employing certain musical modes the citizens are to be inculcated with courage temperance and justice Now there's some irony here because works like the nicomachian ethics and the politics are themselves apparently artifacts of some kind of higher education and philosophy Something like a record of Aristotle's lectures on the topic Perhaps his own notes or the notes of one of his students or of some group of students It's possible that Aristotle imagined that philosophical schools would be entirely private concerns Plato's academy after all was not a public institution Even though the republic calls for revolutionarily public higher education So Aristotle might have thought that that kind of education is not a subject of politics It's not something relevant to the common good of the entire political community But it is the end of those political communities in the sense that He wants to bring about a situation where at least some people can engage in that kind of philosophical activity Even apart from other political institutions and still be happy. That's what happens in his best state