 Excerpt from Illustrated Catalog of a Portion of the Ethnologic and Archeologic Collections Made by the Bureau of Ethnology during the year 1881. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Kali McMahon. Illustrated Catalog of a Portion of the Ethnologic and Archeologic Collections made by the Bureau of Ethnology during the year 1881 by William H. Holmes. Collection made by Edward Palmer in North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas. Introductory Mr. Palmer began his explorations early in July 1881 and continued with market success until the end of the year. He first paid a visit to the Cherokee Indians of North Carolina and collected a large number of articles manufactured or used by this people, besides a number of antiquities from the same region. From Carolina he crossed into Tennessee and began work by opening a number of mounds in Cock County. In September he opened a very important mound which I have named the McMahon Mound. It is located in the vicinity of Severeville, Severe County. Afterwards mounds were opened on Faines Island at Dandridge and at Kingston. In September he crossed into Arkansas and made extensive explorations at Asiola, Pecan Point, Arkansas Post and Indian Bay. It is devolved upon the writer to examine and catalog this fine collection. In preparing the catalog the plan of arrangement already adopted by the Bureau has been carried out, that is, a primary classification by locality and the secondary by material. The descriptions of specimens are taken from the card catalog prepared by the writer on first opening the collection and will be given in full, accepting in cases where detailed descriptions have been furnished in separate papers, either in this or the preceding annual report. Cuts have been made of a number of the more interesting specimens. The localities are named in the order of their exploration. Collections from Jackson County, North Carolina obtained chiefly from the Cherokee Indians. Articles of Stone 62953 A small disc of dark gray slate, one and a quarter inches in diameter and one and one half inches in thickness. The form is symmetrical and the surface well polished. The sides are convex, slightly so near the center and abruptly so near the circumference. The rim or peripheral surface is squared by grinding, the circular form being accurately preserved. This specimen was obtained from an aged Cherokee, who stated that it had formerly been used by his people in playing some sort of game. It seems not improbable that this stone has been used for polishing pottery. 62952 A small sub globular pebble used as a polishing stone for pottery. 62954 A polishing stone similar to the above. This implement was seen in use by the collector. 62947 A hemispherical stone probably used as a nutcracker. 62944 A stone implement somewhat resembling a thick, round pointed pick, four and a half inches in length and one inch in diameter. It is perforated exactly as an iron pick would be for the insertion of a handle. The perforation has been produced by boring from opposite sides. At the surface it is five-eighths of an inch in diameter and midway about three-eighths. The material seems to be an injurated clay or soft slate. The collector suggests that this specimen was probably used for smoothing bow strings or straightening arrow shafts. 62949 Eight arrow points of gray and blackish calcedony. 62950 Pipe of gray injurated steotype of modern Cherokee manufacture. 62951 Pipe of dark greenstone highly polished. It is well modeled but of a recent type. 62888 Grooved axe of compact greenish sandstone found near Bakersville, North Carolina. Articles of clay obtained from the southern band of Cherokees Jackson County, North Carolina. The manufacture of pottery once so universally practiced by the Atlantic coast Indians is still kept up by this tribe rather however for the purpose of trade than for use in their domestic arts. The vessels are to a great extent modeled after the wear of the whites but the methods of manufacture seem to be almost wholly aboriginal. 63070 A handled mug or cup of brownish wear. The form is not aboriginal. It is composed of clay tempered apparently with pulverized shell. The surface has a slight polish produced by a polishing implement. The height is four and a half inches and the width nearly the same. 63068 Large flat-bottomed ball six inches in height 11 inches in diameter at the top and eight at the base. Although made without a wheel this vessel is quite symmetrical. The thickness is from one fourth to one half of an inch. The material has been a dark clay paste with tempering of powdered mica. 63066 A three-legged pot with spherical body resembling very closely in appearance the common iron cooking pot of the whites. The rim is six inches in diameter and one inch high. The body is nine inches in diameter. Two handles are attached to the upper part of the body. The form is symmetrical and the surface highly polished. The polishing stone has been used with so much skill that the effect of a glaze is well produced. The materials used were clay and pulverized mica. The color is dark brown. 63067 A strong rudely made vessel shaped like a half cask. The walls are about one half an inch in thickness. The surface is rough. The polishing stone having been very carelessly applied. 63068 A flat-bottomed ball symmetrical in shape but rudely finished. Vegetal substances 63063 Basket sieve said to be used to separate the finer from the coarser particles of pounded corn. The coarse meal thus obtained is boiled and allowed to ferment. This is used as food and is called Conohana. The sieve is made of split cane carefully smoothed. Some of the strips are dyed red and others brown. A simple ornamental design is worked in these colors. The opening is square with rounded corners. The sides measuring 14 inches. The depth is five inches. The bottom is flat and loosely woven. 63072 A bottle shaped basket with constricted neck and rectangular body used by the Cherokees for carrying fish. Height 11 inches. Width of mouth 4 inches. Diameter of body 6 inches. It is made of strips of white oak or hickory 1 fourth of an inch in thickness. 63073 Basket made of strips of white oak intended for the storage of seeds and for other household uses. The rim is about 5 inches in diameter. The body is 8 inches in diameter. The base being rectangular and flat. 63074 Basket made of cane used for storing seed. 63076 Two baskets made of cane probably used for household purposes. They are neatly ornamented with simple designs produced by the use of colored strips. The rims are oval in shape and the base is rectangular. The larger will hold about half a bushel, the smaller about a gallon. 63077 Small basket with a handle made of splints of white oak. Yellow strips of hickory bark are used to ornament the rim. Other colors are obtained by using bark of different trees, maple, walnut, etc. 63078 Small cup or dish carved from laurel or cucumber wood. It is very neatly made. The depth is about 1 inch, the width 5 inches. 63064 Large spoon carved from laurel or cucumber wood used by the Cherokees in handling the kanawana or fermented meal. The carving is neatly done. The heart-shaped bowl is 6 inches in length, 4 in width and about 2 in depth. The handle is 12 inches long and is embellished at the end by a knob and ring. The knob is carved to represent a turtle's or snake's head. 63065 A smaller spoon similar in shape to the above. 63087 A large five-pronged fork carved from the wood of the Magnolia Glauca. It resembles the iron forks of the whites. 63088 A small three-pronged fork of the same pattern and material as the above. 63080 A wooden comb made in imitation of the shell combs used by white ladies for supporting and ornamenting the back hair. The carving is said to have been done with a knife. Considerable skill is shown in the ornamental design at the top. The wood is maple or beech. 63089 A walnut paddle or club used to beat clothes and washing. 63059 A bow of locust wood five feet long, one half an inch thick and one and a half inches wide in the middle, tapering at the ends to one inch. The back of the bow is undressed. The bark simply having been removed. The string which resembles ordinary twine is said to be made of wild hemp. The arrows are 40 inches in length. The shafts are made of hickory wood and have conical points. Stone and metal points are not used as the country abounds in small game only and heavy points are considered unnecessary. In trimming the arrow two feathers of the wild turkey are used. These are close clipped and fastened with sinew. 63057 A blowgun used by the Cherokees to kill small game. This specimen is seven feet in length and is made of a large cane probably the Arundenaria macrosperma. The guns are made from five to 15 feet in length. The diameter in large specimens reaching one and a half inches. 63058 arrows used with the blowgun. The shafts which are made of hickory wood are two feet in length and very slender. The shooting end has a conical point. The feather end is dressed with thistle down tied on an overlapping layers with thread or sinew. The tip of down completely fills the barrel of the gun and the arrow when inserted in the larger end and blown with a strong puff has a remarkable carrying and penetrating power. 63085 Thistleheads probably from the Neicus Lensialatus from which the down is obtained in preparing the arrows of the blowgun. 63061 Ball sticks or rackets made of hickory wood. Rods of this tough wood about seven feet long are dressed to the proper shape, the ends having a semicircular section, the middle part being flat. Each is bent and the ends united to form a handle, leaving a pear shaped loop six inches in width by about 12 inches in length which is filled with a network of leather or bark strings sufficiently close to hold the ball. 63061 Ball one and a half inches in diameter covered with buckskin used with the rackets in playing the celebrated ball game of the Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole Indians. Animal Substances 63071 Shell probably at Unio used by potters to scrape the surface of clay vessels seen in use. 63081 Comb made of horn. The teeth are two inches in length and have been made with a saw. It is used in dressing the hair. 63085 Charm made of feathers and snake rattles worn on the head or on some part of the costume. 63082 All of iron set in a handle of deer's horn. Collections from Cock County, Tennessee. From fields near Newport. Articles of stone. 62752 Grooved ax, eight inches in length, three and a half in width, and about one inch in thickness. One side is quite flat. The other convex. The material is a banded schistos slate. 62758 A fine specimen of grooved ax, seven inches in length, four in width, and one and a half in thickness. The groove is wide and shallow and is bordered by two narrow ridges which are in sharp relief all the way around. The material appears to be a greenish gray diorite. 62759 A grooved ax, six inches long, three and a half inches wide, and one inch thick. This specimen is similar to the preceding. The groove being deeper on the lateral edges of the implement and the upper end less prominent. It is made of a fine grained gray sandstone. 62753 Fragment of a grooved ax of gray slate. The groove is shallow and irregular. 62754 Selt of compact gray sandstone somewhat chipped at the ends. It is six and a half inches in length by two and a half in width, and one and a half in thickness. One face is flat, the other convex. The sides are nearly parallel. A transverse section would be sub-rectangular. 62755 Fragment of salt, three inches in length by two in width, and about one and a half in thickness. The material is a fine grained sandstone or a diorite. 62756 A long slender salt, very carefully finished, seven inches in length, two in width, and less than one in thickness. The material is a very compact gray slate. It has apparently been recently used as a scythe stone by some harvester. 62757 Fragment of a small narrow salt, both ends of which are lost. 62760 Heavy salt of gray diorite, eight inches in length by three in width, and two and a half in thickness. 62762 A pestle of gray diorite with enlarged base and tapering top, five and a half inches in length, and three inches in diameter at the base. 62751 A pestle of banded schistose slate, 15 inches in length, and two and a half inches in diameter in the middle, tapering symmetrically towards the ends, which terminate in rounded points. 62763 A ceremonial stone resembling somewhat a small broad bladed pick, the outline being nearly semicircular. It is pierced as a pick is pierced for the insertion of a handle. It is two and a half inches in length, one and a half in width, and three-fourths of an inch in thickness. The material is a soft greenish modeled serpentine, or serpentinoid limestone. 62761 A pierced tablet of gray slate, four and a half inches long, one and a half inches wide, and half an inch thick. The two perforations are two and a half inches apart. They have been bored from opposite sides and show no evidence of use. Nine notches have been cut in one end of the tablet. It has been much injured by recent use as a wet stone. 62764 A cupstone of rough sandstone having seventeen shallow cup-like depressions from one to two inches in diameter. The stone is of irregular outline, about ten inches in diameter, and four in thickness. 62765 A large pipe of gray steatite, the ball is square and about three inches in length by one in diameter. The stem end is four inches in length and three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The ball has a deep conical excavation. The same is true of the stem end also. Mount at the junction of the Pigeon and French Broad Rivers Articles of Clay 62870 The mount from which these fragments were obtained was located three miles from Newport. It was twelve feet square and six feet high. The original height was probably much greater. The pottery was mixed with ashes and debris of what appeared to be three fireplaces. No human remains were found. The fragments were not numerous nor do they indicate a great variety in form. There is however considerable variety in decoration. Material The clay is generally gray or dark reddish gray in the mass and is apparently quite salacious or sandy, numerous grains of quartz being visible. There is generally a sprinkling of finely powdered mica but no shell matter can be detected. When much weathered the surface is quite gritty. Form The leading form is a round-bodied pot-shaped vase. There is one small hemispherical bowl. The outlines have been quite symmetrical. The mouths of the pots are wide and the necks deeply constricted. The lip or rim exhibits a number of novel features. That of the larger specimen, of which a considerable segment remains, is furnished on the upper edge with a deep channel nearly one half an inch wide and more than one fourth of an inch deep. Others have a peculiar thickening of the rim, a sort of collar being added to the outside. This is about one inch in width and is thicker below giving a triangular section. The walls of the vessel are usually quite thin. The bottoms were probably rounder nearly so. No fragments however of the lower parts of the vessels were collected. There is but one example of the handle and this presents no unusual features. Ornamentation The ornamentation is in some respects novel. The double or channeled rim of the larger specimen, the mouth of which has been 13 or 14 inches in diameter, is embellished with a line of flutings which seem to be the impressions of a hollow bone or reed. The whole exterior surface is embellished with a most elaborate ornamental design which resembles the imprint of some woven fabric. If a woven fabric has not been used, a pliable stamp producing the effect of a fabric has been resorted to. The fact that the sharply concave portions of the neck are marked with as much regularity as the convex body of the vessel precludes the idea of the use of a solid or non-elastic stamp. The pattern consists of groups of parallel and dented lines arranged at right angles with one another. The puzzling feature being that there is no evidence of the passing of the threads or fillets over or under each other, such as would be seen if a woven fabric had been used. The outer surface of the triangular collar peculiar to many of the pots has been decorated with a herringbone pattern made by impressing a sharp implement. The handle in one case is similarly ornamented. This handle has been added after the figure previously described was impressed upon the neck of the vessel. One small fragment shows another style of indented or stamped pattern, which consists of series of straight and curved lines such as are characteristic of many of the vessels obtained from the Gulf states. A small fragment of coal black wear is entirely smooth on the outside and indicates an unusually well finished and symmetrical vessel. Another shows the impression of basket work in which a wide fillet or splint has served as the warp and a small twisted cord as the wolf. One interesting feature of this vessel is that from certain impressions on the raised edges we discover that the vessel has been taken from the net mold while still in a plastic state. Still another red porous fragment has a square rim which is ornamented with a series of annular indentations. Collections from Sevier County, Tennessee. The McMahon Mount On the west fork of the Little Pigeon River at Sevierville, on a rich bottom 125 yards from the river, is a celebrated mount, the owners of which have for years refused to have it open. Mr. Palmer spent several days in trying to obtain permission to open it and was about leaving in despair when the owners finally yielded, not however without requiring a number of concessions on the part of the collector which concessions were put in the form of a legal document. This mount is 16 feet high and 240 feet in circumference. Three feet below the surface a stratum of burnt clay 15 feet wide by 30 long was reached. This has probably formed part of the roof of a dwelling. Beneath this was a bed of charcoal four inches thick. In this bed remnants of cedar posts from two to four inches thick and one to two feet in length were found. Below this was a stratum of ashes, covering a limited area to the depth of four feet. Surrounding this the earth contained fragments of numerous articles used by the inhabitants, while beneath came four and a half feet of earth in which numerous skeletons had been deposited. The bodies had been interred without order and the bones were so intermingled and so far decayed that no complete skeletons could be collected. Beneath the layer of bones came a second deposit of ashes, two feet thick by two and a half feet in diameter, and beneath this a mass of red clay, eighteen inches in thickness. In the earth surrounding the ashes and clay a number of skeletons were found. These were in such an advanced stage of decomposition that only a few fragments of skulls could be preserved. Three feet below the second layer of bones the undisturbed soil was reached. Two boxes of bones were collected, the well preserved crania numbering about twenty. A great many interesting specimens of the implements, utensils, and ornaments of the mound builders were obtained. The following catalog includes everything of interest. Articles of Stone, 62787, 62792, 62778, 62769, 62784, 62788, numerous specimens of arrow points, flakes, cores, and rough masses of gray and black calcedony obtained partly from the mound and partly from the soil surrounding it. 62793, a somewhat conical object of black compact graphite. The flattish base is rubbed off in a regular way, as if in grinding down for use as a pigment. 62790, fragment of hammer stone of gray mycaceous sandstone, five inches long by three inches in diameter. It was found associated with the upper layer of skeletons. 62808, pipe carved from gray marble. The bowl is symmetrically shaped and resembles a common clay pipe. It is about one and a half inches in height and one in diameter. The stem part is about one fourth of an inch in length, found with the upper layer of skeletons. 62786, a perforated stone tube, one and one-quarter inches long and three-fourths of an inch in diameter. It is probably the upper part of a pipe ball. 62794, a large number of minute quartz pebbles, probably used in a rattle or in playing some game of chants, found with the skeletons in the mound. 62798, three glass beads found four feet below the surface of the mound. One is a bright blue bead of translucent glass. One is opaque resembling porcelain. The third is of blue-gray glass and has three longitudinal stripes of brown underlaid by bands of white. All are cylindrical in shape and are from three-eighths to half an inch in length and about one-fourth of an inch in diameter. Articles of clay. The collection of pottery from this mound is of much interest. There is but one entire vessel, but the fragments are so plentiful and well preserved that many interesting forms can be restored and a very good idea of the ceramic work of this locality be formed. I've spent much time in the examination of these fragments and have assigned each to the form of vessel to which it belonged. Where large pieces are preserved, especially if the rim is included, we have little trouble in reconstructing the entire vessel without fear of being seriously wrong. The lower parts of the bodies of all forms are round or slightly flattened, and but a small fragment of the rim is needed to tell whether the vessel was a bottle, pot, or ball. I find, however, that the forms merge into each other in such a way that a complete graduated series can be found. Of first importance are the round or globular vases with more or less constricted necks. Ornamentation. The inside of all forms is plain, with the exception of accidental markings of the fingers. The rim is square, sharp or round on the edge and sometimes slightly enlarged or beaded on the outer margin. A collar is attached to many forms, which at the lower edge overhangs. It is added to the body with the rim or is a strip afterward attached. It is often notched or indented with a stick, bone, or reed or with the fingers. The necks of vases and pot-shaped vessels have a great variety of handles, knobs, and ornaments. Some of the latter seem to be atrophied handles. In some cases, a low horizontal ridge, from one to four or more inches in length, is placed near the rim in place of the continuous collar. In other cases, a narrow crescent-shaped ridge is attached, the points reaching down on the shoulder, the arch lying upon the neck. Still others have one or more handles which connect the rim with the neck or shoulder of the vessel, leaving a round or oblong passage for a cord or vine. These handles were added after the vessel was completed. They are never ornamented. In one case, an arched handle, like the handle of a basket, connects the opposite sides of the rim. This is the only entire vessel recovered from the mount. It was associated with the upper layers of skeletons, diameter four and a half inches. The body of these vessels is sometimes quite plain but is more frequently covered by cord markings. These, with one or two exceptions, seem to be made by a series of fine cords approximately parallel but without cross threads of any kind. There is little uniformity of arrangement. In the upper part, and about the base of the neck, the intended lines are generally vertical. On the bottom, they are quite irregular, as if the vessel in making had been rolled about on a piece of netting or coarse cloth. The cords have been about the size of the ordinary cotton cord used by merchants. One exception is seen in a fragment of a large, rudely made vase, in which we have the impression of a fabric, the warp of which, whether wood or cord, has consisted of fillets more than one fourth of an inch in width, the wolf being fine cord. This is what is frequently spoken of as the ear of corn impression. No incised or excavated lines have been noticed in these fragments of pot-shaped vessels. Some of the most elegant vessels are without upright necks. The upper or incurved surface of the body is approximately flat, forming, with the lower part of the body, a more or less sharp peripheral angle. The base is rounded, and so far as we can judge from the examples, the bottom is slightly flattened. Vessels having vertical or flaring rims are generally somewhat more shallow. The incurved upper surface is often tastefully ornamented with patterns of incised or excavated lines, which are arranged in groups in vertical or oblique positions, or encircle the vessel parallel with the border. One specimen has a row of stamped circles made by a reed or hollow bone. Bowls of the ordinary shape are variously decorated. In one case we have on the outside of the rim, and projecting slightly above it, a rudely modeled grotesque face. A notched fillet passes around the rim near the lip, connecting with the sides of this head. In another case, a rude node is added to the rim. The only bowl having a flaring rim is without ornament. We have only one fragment of a bowl in which the body has been marked with quartz. Composition. The clay used in the pottery from this mound is generally fine in texture and of a light gray color. Many of the fragments have been blackened by burning subsequently to their original firing, and some may have been originally blackened with graphite. The prevailing colors seen in the fragments are yellowish and reddish grays. The percentage of powdered shell used in tempering has usually been very large, forming at times at least half the mass. The flakes of shell are very coarse, being often as much as one fourth of an inch in diameter. In many cases they have been destroyed by burning, or have dropped out from decay, leaving a deeply pitted surface. Pipes. There are a number of pipes in the collection, most of which were found near the surface of the mound. In some cases they resemble modern forms very closely. The most striking example is made of a fine-grained clay, without visible admixture of tempering material. The color is a reddish gray. It is neatly and symmetrically formed, the surface being finished by polishing with a smooth hard implement, and shaving with a knife. The bowl is two inches high, and the rim is bell-shaped above, with a smooth flat lip one fourth of an inch wide. The diameter of the opening is nearly two inches. The base is conical. The stem part is one half an inch long, and one half an inch in diameter. The ball and stem are both conically excavated. Another specimen is made of clay mixed with powdered shell. The ball is cylindrical, being a little larger at the rim, which is ornamented with rows of punctures. The ball is ornamented by a rosette of indented lines. The mouthpiece has been broken away. Objects of Metal 62797 One of the most instructive finds in this mound is a pair of brass pins of undoubted European manufacture. The collector makes the statement, with entire confidence in its correctness, that they had been encased in the earth at the time of the interment of the bodies. One was associated with the upper, and the other with the lower layer of bones. In size and shape they resemble our ordinary brass toilet pin. The head is formed of a spiral coil of wire, the diameter of which is about one half that of the shaft of the pin. It was also stated by the collector that an iron bolt was found in the lower stratum of bones. This object was unfortunately lost. 62795 A small brass cylinder found three feet seven inches below the surface of the mound. The thin sheet of which the coil is made is about one inch square. The edges are uneven. It was probably used as a bead. Objects of Shell Few mounds have rivaled this in its wealth of shell ornaments. Engraved gorgets cut from the body of the bizicon perversum and large pins from the column L.A. of the same shell are especially numerous and well preserved. Large numbers of beads and unworked shells were also found. All were intimately associated with the skeletons. While many of the specimens are well preserved we find that many are in an advanced state of decay and unless most carefully handled crumble to powder. Similar shell ornaments are found in mounds in other parts of Tennessee as well as in neighboring states. These have been pretty fully described in the second annual report. 62830 through 62839. These pins are all made from the bizicon perversum. The entire specimens range from three to six inches in length, two are fragmentary having lost their points by decay. The heads are from one half to one inch in length and are generally less than one inch in diameter. They are somewhat varied in shape, some being cylindrical, others being conical above. The shaft is pretty evenly rounded but is seldom symmetrical or straight. It is rarely above one half an inch in diameter and tapers gradually to a more or less rounded point. The groove of the canal shows distinctly in all the heads and may often be traced far down the shaft. In a number of cases the surface retains the fine polish of the newly finished object but it is usually somewhat weathered and frequently discolored or chalky. These specimens were found in the mounds along with deposits of human remains and generally in close proximity to the head. This fact suggests their uses ornaments for the hair. 62840 through 62843. A number of saucer-shaped shell gorjets, the upper edge being somewhat straightened, the result of the natural limit of the body of the shell. Two small holes for suspension occur near the upper margin. The diameter ranges from three to six inches. In studying the design the attention is first attracted by an eye-like figure near the left border. This is formed of a series of concentric circles and is partially enclosed by a looped band about one eighth of an inch in width which opens downward to the left. This band is occupied by a series of conical dots or depressions, the number of which varies in the different specimens. The part of the figure enclosed by this band represents the head and neck of the serpent. To the right of the eye we have the mouth which is usually shown in profile, the upper jaw being turned upward exhibiting a double row of notches or teeth. The body encircles the head in a single coil which appears from beneath the neck on the right, passes around the front of the head and terminates at the back an appointed tail armed with well-defined rattles. The spots and scales of the serpent are represented in a highly conventionalized manner. 62841 through 62845. The handsome specimen given in figure 124 is in a very good state of preservation. It is a deep somewhat oval plate made from a busycon perversum. The surface is nicely polished and the margins neatly beveled. The marginal zone is less than half an inch wide and contains at the upper edge two perforations which have been considerably abraded by the cord of suspension. Four long curved slits or perforations almost sever the central design from the rim. The four narrow segments that remain are each ornamented with a single conical pit. The serpent is very neatly engraved and belongs to the chevron variety. The eye is large and the neck is ornamented with a single rectangular intaglio figure. The mouth is more than usually well defined. The upper jaw is turned abruptly backward and is ornamented with lines peculiar to this variety of the designs. The body of the serpent opposite the perforations for suspension is interrupted by a rather mysterious cross band consisting of one broad and two narrow lines. As this is a feature common to many specimens it probably had some important office or significance. 62847 through 62848 mask like shell ornaments. By combination of engraving and sculpture a rude resemblance to the human features is produced. The objects are generally made from large pear shaped sections of the lower whirl of marine univolves. The lower portion which represents the neck and chin is cut from the somewhat constricted part near the base of the shell while the broad outline of the head reaches the first suture at the noted shoulder of the body whirl. The simplest form is shown in figure 125 a more elaborate form is given in figure 126. These objects are especially numerous in the mounds of Tennessee but their range is quite wide examples having been reported from Kentucky, Virginia, Illinois, Missouri and Arkansas and smaller ones of a somewhat different type from New York. In size they range from two to ten inches in length the width being considerably less. They are generally found associated with human remains in such a way as to suggest their uses ornaments for the head or neck. There are however no holes for suspension except those made to represent the eyes and these so far as I observed show no abrasion by a cord of suspension. Their shape suggests the idea that they may have been used as masks after the manner of metal masks by some of the Oriental nations. 62846 engraved shell figure 127. This very interesting object has been fully described in the second annual report of the Bureau. The figure is so obscure the considerable study is necessary in making it out. 62930 engraved shell figure 128. This remarkable specimen has already been described in the second annual report of the Bureau. The engraved design is certainly of a very high order of merit and suggests the work of the ancient Mexicans. 62816 through 62822, 62824, 62826, 62828, 62829. Shell beads, discoidal and cylindrical in form, made chiefly from the columnella and walls of marine univalves. 62825. Shell bead made by grinding off the apex of a large alliva by placata. 62827. Beads made from marginella shells. 62825, 62827, 62850 through 62857, 62782. Species of shell found in the mound, some with the skeletons, others near the surface. The following genera and species are provisionally determined. Unio multiplicatus, uhio ovatus, unio cresidens, unio victorum, marginella, oliva, iospinosa, trapanistoma, anthonii, ankylosa subglobosa, bizicon perversum. 62823. A tooth-shaped freshwater pearl found with the skeletons. 62861. Fragments of deer horn found near the surface of the mound. 62858. An implement of unusual form made from a flat piece of bone found with the skeletons in the mound. 62859, 62860. Bone implements, needles and perforators, some of which are well preserved and retain the original polish, others are in a very advanced stage of decay. Three boxes of human bones, not numbered. From the fields at Sevierville. Articles of stone, 62770. A small grooved ax formed of a coarse textured stone resembling diorite. It is four and a half inches in length and two and a half inches in width. The head is rounded and the cutting edge much battered. The groove is wide and shallow and the bordering ridges prominent. The blade thins out quite abruptly, presented by J.B. Emmert. 62772. A salt six and three-quarter inches long, two and a half inches wide and one inch thick. The material is a compact, blue-gray banded slate. The sides are straight and a transverse section is somewhat rectangular. Both edges are sharpened and are very neatly beveled and polished, presented by W.P. Mitchell. 62771. A small salt of compact greenish slate. One face is flat, the other convex. It is neatly made and perfectly preserved. The broader end being oblique and sharp. It is three and one-eighth inches in length. 62777. A rude, much battered salt of coarse sandstone or diorite. It is four inches in length by two in width near the cutting edge. The top is somewhat conical. 62774. A large, unsymmetrical salt made of coarse yellowish sandstone. One side is much battered. The cutting edge is round and dull. It is nine inches in length by five in width near the broad end and is one and a half inches thick. 62785. A knife blade-shaped object, apparently a fragment of a winged ceremonial stone. The whole surface is smooth and shows no evidence of use. It is made of fine grained gray slate. It is two inches in length by five eighths in width. 62775. A bell-shaped pestle made of yellowish gray quartzite. The surface has been evenly roughened by picking, but has become slightly polished on parts most exposed when in use. The base part is subrectangular in section, and the bottom is slightly but evenly convex. The upper part, which has been shaped for convenient grasping by the hand, is evenly rounded at the top. Height, four and a half inches. Width of base, three and a half inches. 62766. A well-formed globe of gritty sandstone. The surface is roughened or granular. It is two and a half inches in diameter. 62789. Portion of an oblong hammer stone, four inches in length by three in diameter in the middle part. One end has been much reduced by use. It is made of some dark, much decomposed, crystalline rock. 62768. A symmetrical sandstone ring, two inches in diameter, and three fourths of an inch in thickness. The perforation is about five eighths of an inch in diameter. The surface is roughened by picking. 62767. A symmetrical, neatly finished disc of light gray quartzite. It is four and one-quarter inches in diameter and one and one-quarter inches in thickness at the circumference, and less than one inch thick at the center. 62869. An hourglass shaped tube made of gray hydromyca schist, which resembles very compact steatite. It is five and a half inches long, two inches in diameter at the widest part and one and one-quarter inches at the narrowest part. The most restricted part near the middle is girdled by a ring or ridge, on the circumference of which 70 or 80 shallow notches have been cut. The perforation is much enlarged at the ends, giving cup-like cavities. The walls are thin near the ends and quite thick near the middle, the passage being hardly more than one-quarter of an inch in diameter. The markings on the inside indicate that the excavation has been made by a gouging process, rather than by the use of a rotary perforator. 62776. A boat-shaped ceremonial stone of banded slate three inches long, one inch wide and one inch deep. From the side the outline is triangular, the two lines of the keel forming almost a right angle. From the top the outline is a long pointed oval, as seen in the illustration figure 131. The trough-shaped excavation is more rounded in outline, and is three-fourths of an inch in depth. Perforations have been made near the ends of this trough. These seem to be somewhat abraded on the outside by a cord of suspension or attachment, which is passed between them along a groove in the apex or angle of the keel. 62868. An amulet or charm of dark greenish rock, probably a serpentine, carved to represent a bird's head. The more highly polished parts are quite dark, while freshly cut lines are whitish. The head is graphically represented, the bill, the eye and nostril being well shown. A stand-like base takes the place of the body of the bird. Around this near the bottom a groove has been cut for the purpose of attaching a string or securing a handle. In dressing the surface some implement has been used to those left phylo-like scratches. Figure 132 represents this object, natural size. 62773. Fragment of a stone disc or wheel that has lines cut upon it, resembling in arrangement the grooves of an ordinary millstone. Diameter six inches, thickness two inches. This is probably not an aboriginal work. 63186. A banners stone of unusual shape made of gray slate. The cut, figure 133, represents this object three-fourths natural size. The perforation is one-half an inch in diameter and is quite symmetrical. The entire surface is well polished. Articles of clay. A few specimens of pot sherds were collected from the fields about Sevierville. Most of these are identical in every way with pottery of the mound, but three examples are of a totally different type. The material of these is a fine sandy clay tempered with a large percentage of finely pulverized mica. The forms of the vessels cannot be made out. The outer surfaces were ornamented by a stamped pattern of small square or lozen shaped figures. A number of these together were apparently formed by a single stamp. Among the fragments we have half a dozen discs from one to two inches in diameter worked from ordinary pot sherds. A small rudely modeled figure of a bird was also found with these fragments. There were also masses of injurated clay, which seem to have been used for chinking purposes. End of excerpt from portion of the collections made by the Bureau of Ethnology during the field season of 1881 by William H. Holmes, recording by Colleen McMahon. A catechism of familiar things, their history, and the events which led to their discovery with a short explanation of some of the principal natural phenomena. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recorded by Lola Jane. A catechism of familiar things, their history, and the events which led to their discovery with a short explanation of some of the principal natural phenomena. By Ben Useger Brothers. Chapter one, dew, water, rain, snow, hail, atmosphere, wind, lightning, thunder, electricity, twilight, and the aurora borealis. What is dew? Moisture collected from the atmosphere by the action of cold. During the day, the powerful heat of the sun causes to arise from the earth and water. A moist vapor, which after the sun sinks below the horizon, is condensed by the cold and falls in the form of dew. Dews are more copious in the spring and autumn than any other season. In warm countries than in cold ones, because of the sudden changes of temperature. Egypt abounds in dews all the summer. For the air being too hot to condense the vapors in the daytime, they never gather into clouds and form rain. Horizon, the line which bounds the views on all sides so that the earth and sky appear to meet. A Greek word from the verb signifying to mark boundaries. Temperature, degrees of heat or cold, condense to cause the particles of a body to approach or unite more closely. What are its uses? It cools and refreshes the vegetable creation and prevents it from being destroyed by the heat of the sun. All hot countries where there is little or no rain are therefore blessed with this provision by the all bountiful creator to render them luxuriant and inhabitable. And the dews which fall are so copious that the earth is as deeply soaked with them during the night as if a heavy rain had fallen. For this reason also, it is that we so often read in the Bible of the due of heaven being promised to the Israelites as a signal. Luxuriant, fertile, flourishing, signal, remarkable, eminent. From what does the vapor originate? Vapor is water combined with a still greater quantity of caloric that is an imponderable and subtle form of matter which causes the sensation of heat and which drives ascended the particles of the water rendering it area form. Imponderable without sensible weight, subtle, thin, not dense compact. Particle, a small portion of matter. Area form, having the form of air. What is water? The fluid which covers more than three-fifths of the surface of our globe and which is necessary for life and health of the animal and vegetable creation. For without water there would be neither rain nor dew and everything would perish. It is likewise a necessary beverage for man and the inferior animals. Beverage, drink, liquor for drinking. In how many states do we find water? In four. First, solid as in ice, snow, hail, etc. Second, fluid as in its common form. Third, area form as in steam. And fourth, in a state of union with other matter. It is most simple state it is that of ice which is water deprived of a certain portion of its caloric. Crystallization then takes place and the water becomes solid and is called ice. Crystallization, the process by which the parts of a solid body separated by solution or fusion are again brought into the solid form. If this process is slow, the figure assumed is regular and bounded by plain and smooth surfaces. Solution, the diffusion of a solid through some liquid. Fusion, melting or rendering fluid by heat. From what cause is the water deprived of its caloric? From the coldness of the atmosphere, underneath the poles of our globe it is mostly solid. There it is similar to the hardest rock and may be cut with a chisel, like stone or marble. This great solidity is occasioned by the low temperature of the surrounding air and in very cold countries ice may be found so fine as to be blown away by the wind and will still be ice. Pulse, the extremities or ends of the axis, an imaginary line supposed to be drawn through the center of the earth or when applied to the heavens the two points directly over them. Is ice the only instance of water existing in a state of solidity? No, it is found in a solid state in many minerals as in marble etc and is then called water of crystallization. It is essential in many cases to their solidity and transparency. Essential, necessary. Transparency, clearness, the power of transmitting light. Does nature decompose water in any of her operations? Yes, every living vegetable has the power of decomposing water by a secret process peculiar to itself. Fish too and all cold-blooded amphibious animals are gifted with the same power. Decomposing, separating a mixed body into its several parts. Amphibious, able to live both in water and out of it. Of what use is this power to vegetables? The water which they decompose affords them nourishment for the support of their vital juices and enables them by combining the fluid gases which compose it with those of the air and the soil to form their different products. While the super flurrious gas is abundantly given out by their leaves to refresh this spin air and render it wholesome for the animals that breathe. Vital, belonging to life necessary to existence. Super flurrious, unnecessary, not wanted. What is rain? The condensed, aqueous vapors raised in the atmosphere by the sun and wind converted into clouds which fall in rain, snow, hail or mist. Their falling is occasioned by their own weight in a collision produced by contrary currents of wind from the clouds passing into a colder part of the air or by electricity. If the vapors are more corpous and rise a little higher they form a mist or fog which is visible to the eye. Higher still they produce rain. Hence we may account for the changes of the weather. Why a cold summer is always a wet one, a warm or dry one. Aqueous, watery consisting of water. Collision, a striking together, a clash, a meeting. Electricity, a natural agent existing in all bodies. See page 18. What seasons are more liable to rain than others? The spring and autumn are generally the most rainy seasons. The vapors rise more plentiful in spring and in autumn as the sun recedes from us and the cold increases. The vapors which lingered above us during the summer heats fall more easily. Received to fall back to retreat. What is snow? Rain congealed by cold in the atmosphere which causes it to fall to the earth in white flakes. Snow fertilizes the ground by defending the roots of plants from an intense cold of the air and the piercing winds. Congealed, turned by the force of cold from a fluid to a solid state, hardened. Fertilized to render fruitful. Intense rays to a higher degree, more powerful. What is hail? Drops of rain frozen in their passage through cold air. Hail assumes various figures according to the degrees of heat or cold through which it passes, being sometimes round, flat, etc. What is atmosphere? The mass of air formed fluid which encompasses the earth on all sides. It extends about 50 miles above its surface. Air is the elastic fluid of which it is composed. Elastic, having the power of springing back or recovering its former figure after the removal of any external pressure, which has altered that figure. When the force which compresses the air is removed, it expands and resumes its former state. What are the uses of air? It is necessary to the well-being of man since without it neither he nor any animal or vegetable could exist. If it were not for atmospheric air, we would be unable to converse with each other. We should know nothing of sound or smell or of the pleasures which arise from the variegated prospects which surround us. It is to the presence of air that carbonic acid that water owes its agreeable taste. Boiling deprives it of the greater parts of these and renders it insipid, variegated, diversified, changed, adorned with different colors, insipid, tasteless. What is wind? Air in motion with any degree of velocity. What is lightning? The effect of electricity in the clouds. A flash of lightning is simply a stream of the electric fluid passing from the clouds to the earth, from the earth to the clouds or from one cloud to another. Lightning usually strikes the highest and most pointed objects such as high hills, trees, spires, mass of ships, etc. What is thunder? The report which accompanies the electrical union of the clouds or the echoes of the report between them and the earth. Thunder is caused by a sudden discharge of electrical matter collected in the air by which vibrations are produced which give rise to sound. What is electricity? One of those agents passing through the earth and all substances without giving any outward signs of its presence when at rest yet when active often producing violent and destructive effects. It is supposed to be highly elastic fluid capable of moving through matter. Clouds owe their form and existence probably to it and it passes through all substances but more easily through metals, water, the human body, etc. which are called conductors then through air, glass, and silk which are called non-conductors. When bodies are not surrounded with non-conductors the electricity escapes quickly into the earth. To what part of bodies is electricity confined to their surfaces as the outside may be electric and the inside in a state of neutrality? The heat produced by an electric shock is very powerful but is only accompanied by light when the fluid is obstructed in its passage. The production and condensation of vapor is a great source of the atmospheric electricity. Condensation the act of making anybody dense or compact that is of bringing its parts into closer union. In what other sense is the term electricity employed? This term is also employed to designate that important branch of knowledge which relates to the property shown by certain bodies when rubbed against or otherwise brought in contact with each other to attract substances and emit sparks of fire. Designate to point out by some particular token. Emit to send forth to throw. Whence is the word derived? From electron the Greek word for amber a yellow transparent substance remarkable for its electrical power when rubbed. Amber is of a resenuous nature and is collected from the seashore or dug from the earth in many parts of the world. It is employed in the manufacture of beads and other toys on account of its transparency. It is of some use in medicine and in the making of varnishes. Transparent clear capable of being seen through. Resinuous containing a resin of gummy vegetable juice. Name a few substances possessing this remarkable property. Silks of all kinds the hair and fur of animals paper sulfur and some other minerals most of the precious stones the pace of which false gems are made and many other substances used by us in the common affairs of life are susceptible of electrical excitement among domestic animals the cat furnishes a remarkable instance when dry and warm the back of almost any old grown cat the darker its color the better can be excited by rubbing it with the hand in the direction of the hair a process which is accompanied with a slight snapping noise and in the dark by flashes of pale blue light when a piece of glass is rubbed with silk or a stick of red ceiling wax with woolen cloth each substance acquires the property of attracting and repelling feathers straws threads of cotton and other light substances the substances just mentioned as highly electric are however nearly specimens all objects without exception most probably are capable of being electrically excited but some require more complicated contrivances to produce it than others electric having the properties of electricity susceptible disposed to admit easily repelling the act of driving back complicated formed by the union of several parts in one is there not a machine by which we are enabled to obtain large supplies of electrical power at pleasure yes the electrical machine it is made of different forms and sizes for common purposes those of the simplest form are the best a common form of the machine consists of a circular plate of glass which can be turned about a horizon axis by means of a suitable handle this plate turns between two supports and near its upper and lower edges are two pairs of cushions usually made of leather stuffed with horse hair encoded with a mixture of zinc tin and mercury called an amalgamum these cushions are the rubbers for producing friction and are connected with the earth by means of a metal chain or rod two large hollow cylinders of brass with globular ends each supported by two glass pillars constitute the reservoir for receiving the electricity they are called the prime conductors and are supplied with u-shaped rods of metal furnished with points along their sides called comb for the purpose of receiving the electricity from the glass plate the arms of the u being held upon either side the other ends of the conductors are connected by a rod from the middle of which projects another rod terminating in a knob for delivering the spark on turning the plate a faint snapping sound is heard and when the room is darkened a spark is seen to be thrown out from the knob projecting from the prime conductors many curious and interesting experiments may be performed by means of the machine illustrating the general properties of electricity for instance a person standing on an insulated bench that is a bench with glass legs or having the legs resting on glass and having one hand on the conductor can send sparks with the other hand to everything and everybody about this illustrates communication of electricity by contact a wooden head covered with long hairs when placed on the conductor illustrates electrical repulsion by the hairs standing on end if the hand is held to the knob sparks will pass from it in rapid succession causing in the hand a sensation of pain this is called an electric shock and is caused by the electrical fluid occasioning a sudden motion by the contraction of muscles through which it passes the force of the shock is in proportion to the power of the machine what are muscles bundles of thin fleshy fibers or threads fasten to the bone of animals the contraction and expansion of which moves the bones or perform the organic functions of life organic relating to organs or natural instruments by which some process is carried on functions employments or offices of any part of the body contraction drawing in or shortening expansion extending or spreading out what is twilight the light from the first dawning of day to the rising of the sun and again between its setting and the last remains of the day without twilight the sun's light would appear at its rising and disappear at its setting instantaneously and we should experience a sudden transition from the brightest sunshine to the profoundest obscurity the duration of twilight is different in different climates and in the same places it varies at different periods of the year instantaneously done in an instant in a moment's time obscurity darkness want of light how is it produced by the sun's refraction that is the variation of the rays of light from the direct course occasioned by the difference of density in the atmosphere variation change density closeness of parts compactness what is the poetical name for the morning twilight aurora the goddess of the morning and hara binger of the rising sun whom poets and artists represent as drawn by white horses in a rose colored cherry unfolding with her rosy fingers the portals of the east horn reviving dew upon the earth and reanimating plants and flowers harbinger a forerunner portals gates doors of entrance reanimating invigorating with new life what remarkable phenomenon is afforded to the inhabitants of the polar regions the aurora borealis or northern lights a luminous appearance in the northern parts of the heavens seen mostly during winter or in frosty weather and clear evenings it assumes a variety of forms and hues especially in the polar regions where it appears in its perfection and proves a great solace to the inhabitants amidst the gloom of their long winter's night which lasts from one to six months while the summer's day which succeeds it lasts in like manner for the same period of time of what nature is the aurora borealis it is decidedly an electrical phenomenon which takes place in the higher regions of the atmosphere it is somehow connected with the magnetic poles of the earth and generally appears in form of a luminous art from east to west but never from north to south phenomena an extraordinary experience the word is from a greek one signifying to show or appear magnetic belonging to the magnet or lodestone luminous bright shining in what country is it seen constantly from october to christmas in syberia where it is remarkably bright on the western coast the hudson's bay the sun no sooner disappears than the aurora borealis diffuses a thousand different lights and colors with such dazzling beauty that even the full moon cannot eclipse it chapter two corn barley pearl barley oats rye potatoes tea coffee and chocolate what is corn corn signifies a race of plants which produce grain in an ear or head fifth of bread the food of man or the grain or seed of the plant separated from the ear what is generally meant by corn in this country mace or indian corn is generally meant but in a more comprehensive sense the term is applied to several other kinds of grain such as wheat rye barley oats etc where was corn first used it is uncertain the Athenians pretend that it was amongst them it was first used the cretins sestallians and egyptians also lay claim to the same from the accounts in the bible we find that its culture engaged a large share of the attention of the ancient hebrus culture growth cultivation hebrus the children of israel the jews who were the Athenians inhabitants of Athens the capital of Greece who were the cretins the inhabitants of crete an island of the archipelago who were the sestallians inhabitants of Sicily the largest island of the Mediterranean sea now a part of italy and separated from the mainland by the strait of mestino where do the egyptians dwell in egypt a country of africa it is extremely fertile producing great quantities of corn in ancient times it was called the dry nurse of Rome and Italy from its furnishing with corn a considerable part of the roman empire and we are informed both from sacred and profane history that it was anciently the most fertile in corn of all countries of the world the corn of syria has always been very superior and by many class above that of egypt for what is barley generally used it is very extensively used for making malt from which are prepared beer ale porter etc in scotland it is a common ingredient in broth for which reason its consumption is very considerable barley broth being a dish very frequent there ingredient a separate part of a body consisting of different materials oats what is pearl barley barley freed from the husk by a mill what are oats a valuable grain serving as food for horses oats are also eaten by the inhabitants of many countries after being ground into meal and made into oat cakes oatmeal also forms a wholesome drink for invalids by steeping it in boiling water what are the uses of rye in this in some other countries it is much used for bread either alone or mixed with wheat in england principally as food for cattle especially for sheep and rams when other food is scarce in winter rye yields a strong spirit when distilled distilled subjected to distillation the operation of extracting spirit from a substance by evaporation and condensation of what country is the potato a native potatoes grew wild in peru a country of south america whence they were transplanted to other parts of the american continent and afterward to europe the honor of introducing this useful vegetable into england is divided between sir francis drake in 1580 and sir walter riley in 1586 some ascribing it to the former and others to the latter it is certain they were obtained from virginia in the time of riley they were cultivated only in the gardens of the nobility and were reckoned a great delicacy they now constitute a principal article of food in most of the countries of europe and america in ireland they have long furnished nearly four fifths of the entire food of the people what part of the plant is eaten the root which when roasted or boiled affords a wholesome and agreeable meal what is tea the leaves of an evergreen shrub a native of china and japan in which countries alone it is extensively cultivated for use the tea plant was at one time introduced into south carolina where its culture appears to have been attended with but little success it may yet become a staple production of some portions of the united states evergreen retaining its leaves fresh and green through all seasons how is it prepared for use by carefully gathering the leaves one by one while they are yet small young and juicy they are then spread on large flat iron pans and placed over small furnaces when they are constantly shifted by hand till they become too hot to be born what is next done they are then removed with a kind of shovel resembling a fan and poured on mats once they are taken into small quantities enrolled in the palm of the hand always in one direction until they cool and retain the curl how often is the operation repeated two or three times the furnace each time being made less hot the tea is then placed in the storehouses or packed in chests and then sent to most of the countries in europe and america describe the appearance of the tea tree the tea tree when arrived at its full growth which it does in about seven years is about a man's height the green leaves are narrow and jagged all around the flower resembles that of the wild rose but is smaller the shrub loves to grow in valleys at the foot of mountains and on banks of rivers where it enjoys a southern exposure to the sun though it endures considerable variation to heat and cold it flourishes in a northern climb of pecan where the winter is often severe and also about canton where the heat is sometimes very great the best tea however grows in a temperate climate the country about nankin producing better tea than either pecan or canton between which two places it is situated what produces the difference between green and boa or black there are varieties of the plant and the difference of the tea arises from the mode of preparation what nation first introduced it into europe the dutch in 1610 it was introduced into england in 1650 what is coffee the berry of the coffee tree a native of arabia the coffee tree is an evergreen and makes a beautiful appearance at all times of the year but especially when in flower and when the berries are red which is usually during the winter it is also cultivated in persia the east indies liberia on the coast of africa the west indies brazil and other parts of south america as well as in most tropical climates tropical being within the tropics that is in the torrid zone who was the original discoverer of coffee for a drink of man it is not exactly known the earliest written accounts of the use of coffee are by arabian writers in the 15th century it appears that in the city of aiden it became in the latter half of that century a very popular drink first with lawyers studious persons in those whose occupation required waitfulness at night and soon after with all classes its use gradually extended to other cities and to those on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean towards the end of the 17th century it was carried to batavia where it was soon extensively planted and at last young trees were sent to the botanical gardens at amsterdam who introduced it into france and england they've not the traveler brought it into france and a greek servant named pasqua taken to england by mr daniel edwards a turkey merchant in 1652 to make his coffee first set up the profession of coffee man and introduced a drink among the english how is it prepared the berries are roasted in a revolving metallic cylinder do they are a deep brown color and then ground to powder and boiled metallic consisting of metal what is chocolate a kind of cake or paste made of the kernel of the cacao nuts describe the cacao nut tree it resembles the cherry tree and grows to the height of 15 or 16 feet the cacao nut tree bears leaves flowers and fruit all the year through where does it grow in tropical regions where it is largely cultivated of what form is the fruit it is somewhat like a cucumber about three inches round and of a yellowish red color it contains from 10 to 40 seeds each covered with a little ride of a violet color when this is stripped off the kernel of which they make the chocolate is visible how do they make it into a drink by boiling it with water or milk there are various newly invented ways of preparing chocolate so that it may be made in a few minutes by only pouring boiling water upon it chapter three calico cotton cloth wool base linen flax hemp diaper holland canvas and flannel what is calico a kind of printed cotton of different colors from what place did it take its name from calicut a city of the coast of malabar where it was first made much is now manufactured in the united states england and many other countries what is cotton a downy or woolly substance enclosed in the pod or seed vessel of the cotton plant the commercial classification of cotton is determined one by cleanliness or freedom from sand dry leaf and other impurities two by absence of color both subject also to character of staple length and strength and finest of fiber these together determine relative value there are two general classifications long staple and short staple of the form of the best is the sea island cotton of the united states the short staple cotton grows in the middle and upper country the long staple is cultivated in the lower country near the sea and on the islands near the coast how is it cultivated the seeds are sown in ridges made with the plow or hoe when the plants are mature the pods open and the cotton is picked from them where did cotton anciently grow and for what was it used in egypt where it was used by the priests and sacrifices for a very singular kind of garment worn by them alone in what manufacture is it now used it is woven into muesliens diminities cloths calicoes etc and is also joined with silks and flaxs in the composition of other stuffs and in working with the needle how is the cotton separated from the seed by machines called cotton gins of which there are two kinds the roller gin and the sorgin in the former the cotton just as gathered from the plant is drawn between two rollers placed so closely together as to prevent the passage of the cotton but not of the seeds which are consequently left behind in the sorgin the cotton is placed in a receiver one side of which consisted of a grating of parallel wires about an eighth of an inch apart circular saws revolving on a common axis between these wires entangle in your teeth the cotton and draw it from the seeds which are too large to pass between the wires how is it made into calico etc the cotton having been separated from the seed is spun by a machine for the purpose it is next woven then dressed and printed what is cloth the word in its general sense includes all kinds of stuffs woven in the loom whether the threads be of wool cotton hemp or flaxs to what is it more particularly applied to a web or tissue of woolen threads web anything woven what is wool the covering or hair of sheep to prepare for the weaver it is first shorn washed and dried then carded or combed by machinery into fibers or threads formally this was always performed by the hand by means of an instrument called a comb with several rows of pointed teeth this though not much used now is still occasionally employed except in large factories its combing is repeated two or three times till it is sufficiently smooth and even for spinning spinning or converting the wool or cotton silk etc into thread was anciently performed by the disc staff and spindle these we find mentioned in sacred history and they have been used in all ages and in all countries yet discovered the natives of india and some other parts of the world still employ this simple invention what was the next improvement the invention of the hand wheel in 1767 a machine called the spinning Jenny was invented by a weaver named Hargreaves but the greatest improvement in the art of spinning was affected by mr. Arkwright in 1768 these two inventions were combined and again improved upon in 1776 also that by the new plan the material can be converted into thread in a considerably shorter space of time than in the ancient mode leaving to man merely to feed the machine and during the threads when they break the sheep whose wool forms the material for nearly all wool and clothing originally came from Africa does weaving differ according to the material used the principle of weaving is the same in every kind of fabric and consists in forming any kind of thread into a flat web or cloth by interlacing one thread with another the various appearances of the manufacturer arise as much from the modes in which the threads are interwoven as from the difference of material is not the employment of wool in the manufacture of clothing of great antiquity in the earliest records we possess of the arts of mankind wool is mentioned as forming a chief article in the manufacture of clothing it is spoken of in the bible as common material for cloth as early as the time of moses the ancient Greeks and Romans are well known to have possessed this art at the beginning of the 13th century the manufacture was established in many parts of Europe particularly in Spain from which country extended itself to France and Italy there is no doubt that it was introduced into England by its conquerors the romans a manufacturing being established at winchester sufficiently large to supply the ramen army manufacturing a place where things are made or manufactured derived from the latin manis a hand and the verb fascio to do or make what circumstance contributed to the progress of this manufacturer among the English in 1330 the English being desirous of improving their woolen manufacture invited over the Flemings by the offer of various privileges to establish manufacturers there the skill of these people soon affected a great improvement in the English fabrics so that there were no longer remain any occasion for the exportation of English wool into Flanders to be manufactured into fine cloth and a law was passed by the government to forbid it both the cotton and woolen manufacturers have of late years arisen to great importance in the United State what country affords the best wool the wool of Germany is most esteemed at the present day that of Spain was formerly the most valuable but the Spanish breed of sheep having been introduced into Germany succeeded better there than in Spain and increased so rapidly that the Spanish wool trade has greatly diminished australia is one of the principle wool growing countries in the world for the breed of sheep sent out to that country and Tasmania has succeeded remarkably well what part of the world is meant by australia a british island in the southern pacific ocean comprising the colonies of queens land new south wales victoria south australia and western australia it is the principle of the group of large islands in the oriental archipelago Tasmania is another of the same group separated from new south wales by a channel called basses straight and also belonging to great britain what is meant by archipelago a part of a sea studied with numerous islands but the term is more particularly applied to that line between europe and asia which contains the greek islands the word is the corruption from the greek signifying the agency is the wool of the sheep all of one quality no it varies according to the species of sheep the soil on which they are fed and the part of the animal from which it is taken the chief distinction is between the long and the short wool the long wool is employed in the manufacture of carpets crepes blankets etc and the finer and shorter swords for hosiery broad etc where were carpets originally made from carpets are of oriental origin and are made of different sorts of stuffs they are woven in a variety of ways persian and turkey carpets are most esteemed they are woven in a piece in a loom of a very simple construction formerly the manufacture of these carpets was confined to persia and turkey but they are now successfully made both in europe and the united states etc great britain is the principal seat of the carpet manufacturer of the world brussels wilton and kitterminster carpets derive their names from the places where they were invented is not the art of weaving very ancient it appears to have been known from a period as early as the time of abraham and jacob its inventor is not known but it is possible that men took a lesson from the ingenious spider which weaves its web after the same manner the ancient egyptians appear to have brought it to great perfection and were even acquainted with the art of interweaving colors after the manner of the scottish plaid what is base a coarse open woolen stuff with a long nap it is chiefly made in the united states england france etc what is linen there are various kinds of linen made from cotton flax and hem but the term is chiefly applied to that woven with the two last mentioned linen means cloth of flax hence its derivation from the latin word linen what is flax the annual plant the fibers of which are beaten into threads spun and afterwards woven into linen it is extensively cultivated in the united states russia and some other countries of europe hemp is a plant of a similar nature equally used with flax in the manufacture of linens russian hemp is cultivated to a larger extent than that of any other country and is considered the best that is grown how long has the use of hemp and flax been known those plants are said to be natives of persia and introduced from some parts of the east into europe over which is now widely distributed it existed both in a wild and cultivated state in some parts of russia as early as five centuries before christ these products form a considerable article of exportation besides the quantity used in russia itself a considerable part is brought into linens diaper canvas and other manufacturers and even the seeds are exported both in their natural state and as oil in various parts of russia hemp seed oil and flax seed or linseed oil are prepared in a very large quantity what is diaper a sort of linen cloth woven in flowers and other figures it is said to have received his name from d i per now yips a town of belgium situated on a river of the same name where it was first made what is holland a fine clothes even linen cloth used for sheets etc it obtained this name from being principally made in holland what is canvas a hempen cloth so loosely woven as to leave intersexes between the threads in little squares it is used for working in patterns upon with wool etc by painters for groundwork on which they draw their pictures for tents sales and many other purposes there are several sorts varying in fineness of their texture what is damask a sort of silken stuff having some parts raised on its surface to represent flowers or figures it took its name from damask us in syria once it was first brought is there not another sort of damask yes made from linen and so called because its large flowers resemble those of damask roses it was first made in flanders and is used for table linen etc what is flannel a slight loose woollen stuff used for warm clothing it was originally made in wales where it is still continues to be manufactured in great perfection and of a catechism of familiar things their history and the events which led to their discovery with a short explanation of some of the principal natural phenomena by benziger brothers