 Section 12 of The Natural History, Volume 1 This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org Recording by Bianca The Natural History, Volume 1 by Pliny the Elder Translated by John Bostock and Henry Thomas Wiley Section 12 Chapter 78 of The First Dial Anneximonies, the Melisian, the disciple of Anneximander, of whom I've spoken above, discovered the theory of shadows and what is called the art of dialing. And he was the first who exhibited at Lasey Demon the dial which they call SkyoTheoricon, Chapter 79 of the mode in which the days are computed. The days have been computed by different people in different ways. The Babylonians reckoned from one Sunrise to the next, the Athenians from one Sunset to the next, the Umbrians from noon to noon, the multitude universally from light to darkness. The Roman priests and those who presided over the civil day also the Egyptians and Hipparchus from midnight to midnight. It appears that the interval from one Sunrise to the next is less near the solstices than near the equinoxes, because the position of the zodiac is more oblique about its middle part and more straight near the solstice. Chapter 80 of The Difference of Nations as depending on the nature of the world. To these circumstances we must add those that are connected with certain celestial causes. There can be no doubt that the Ethiopians are scorched by their vicinity to the Sun's heat, and they are born like persons who have been burned with the beard and hair frizzled. While in the opposite and frozen parts of the earth there are nations with white skins and long, light hair. The latter are savage from the inclemency of the climate while the former are dull from its variableness. We learn from the form of the legs that in the one the fluids like vapor are forced into the upper parts of the body, while in the other being a gross humor it is drawn downwards into the lower parts. In the cold regions savage beasts are produced and in the others various forms of animals and many kinds of birds. In both situations the body grows tall in the one case by the force of fire and in the other by the nutritive moisture. In the middle of the earth there is a salutary mixture of the two attract fruitful in all things the habits of the body holding a mean between the two with a proper tempering of colors. The colours of the people are gentle, the intellect clear, the genius fertile and capable of comprehending every part of nature. They have formed empires which has never been done by the remote nations yet these latter have never been subjected by the former being savoured from them and remaining solitary from the effect produced on them by their savage nature. Chapter 81 of Earthquakes According to the doctrine of the Babylonians earthquakes and cleft of the earth and occurrences of these kinds are supposed to be produced by the influence of the stars especially of the tree to which they ascribe thunder and to be caused by the stars moving with the sun or being in conjunction with it and more particularly when they are in the quartile aspect. If we are to credit the report a most admirable and immortal spirit as it were of a divine nature should be ascribed to Anaximando the Melisian who they say warned the Lassidimonians to beware of their city and their houses. For he predicted that an earthquake was at hand when both the whole of their city was destroyed and a large portion of Mount Tietos which projected in the form of a ship was broken off and added further ruin to the previous destruction. Another prediction is ascribed to Farisides the master of Parthagoras and this was divine. By a draught of water from a well he foresaw and predicted that there would be an earthquake in that place. And if these things be true how nearly do these individuals approach to the deity even during their lifetime? But I leave everyone to judge of these matters as he pleases. I certainly conceive the winds to be the cause of earthquakes for the earth never trembles except when the sea is quite calm and when the heavens are so tranquil that the birds cannot maintain their flight all the air which should support them being withdrawn nor does it ever happen until after great winds the gust being pent up as it were the fishers and concealed hollows. For the trembling of the earth resembles thunder in the clouds nor does the yawning of the earth differ from the bursting of the lightning the enclosed air struggling and striving to escape. Chapter 82 of Clefts of the Earth The earth is shaken in various ways and wonderful effects are produced in one place the walls of cities being thrown down and in others swallowed up by a deep cleft sometimes great masses of earth are heaped up and rivers forced out sometimes even flame and hot springs and at others the course of rivers is turned a terrible noise precedes and accompanies the shock sometimes a murmuring like the lowing of cattle or like human voices or the clashing of arms this depends on the substance which receives the sound and the shape of the caverns or crevices through which it issues it being more shrill from a narrow opening more hoarse from one that is curved producing a loud reverberation from hard bodies a sound like boiling fluid from moist substances fluctuating in stagnant water and roaring when forced against solid bodies there is therefore often the sound without any motion nor is it a simple motion but one that is tremulous and vibratory the cleft sometimes remains displaying what it has swallowed up sometimes concealing it the mouth being closed and the soil being brought over it so that no vestiges left the city being as it were devoured and the tract of country engulfed Maritime districts are more especially subject to shocks nor are mountainous tracts exempt from them I have found by my inquiries that the elves and the apennines are frequently shaken the shocks happen more frequently in the autumn and in the spring as is the case also with thunder there are seldom shocks in Gaul and in Egypt in the latter it depends on the prevalence of summer in the former of winter they also happen more frequently in the night than in the day the greatest shocks are in the morning and the evening but they often take place at daybreak and sometimes at noon they also take place during eclipses of the sun and of the moon because at that time storms are lulled they are most frequent when great heat succeeds to showers or showers succeed to great heat Chapter 83 Science of an Approaching Earthquake There is no doubt that earthquakes are felt by persons on shipboard as they are struck by a sudden motion of the waves without these being raised by any gust of wind and things that are in the vessel shake as they do in houses and give notice by their creaking also the birds when they settle upon the vessels are not without their alarms there is also a sign in the heavens for when a shock is near at hand either in the daytime or a little after sunset a cloud is stretched out in the clear sky like a long thin line the water in wells is also more turbid than usual and it emits a disagreeable odor Chapter 84 Preservatives Against Future Earthquakes These same places however afford protection and this is also the case where there is a number of caverns for they give vent to the confined vapor a circumstance which has been remarked in certain towns which have been less shaken where they have been excavated by many sewers and in the same town those parts that are excavated are safer than the other parts as is understood to be the case at Naples in Italy the part of it which is solid being more liable to injury arched buildings are also the most safe also the angles of walls the shocks counteracting each other walls made of brick also suffer less from the shocks there is also a great difference in the nature of the motions where various motions are experienced it is the safest when it vibrates and causes a creaking in the building and where it swells and warzes upwards and settles with an alternate motion it is also harmless when the buildings coming together but against each other in opposite directions for the motions counteract each other a movement like the rolling of waves is dangerous or when the motion is impelled in one direction the tremors cease when the vapor bursts out but if they do not soon cease they continue for 40 days generally indeed for a longer time some have lasted even for one or two years Chapter 85 prodigies of the earth which have occurred once only a great prodigy of the earth which never happened more than once I have found mentioned in the books of the Etruscan ceremonies as having taken place in the district of Mutina during the consulship of Lucius Marcius and Sextus Julius two mountains rush together falling upon each other with a very loud crash and then receding while in the daytime flame and smoke issued from them a great crowd of Roman knights and families of people and travelers on the Emillian way being spectators of it all the farmhouses were thrown down by the shock and a great number of animals that were in them were killed it was in the year before the social war and I am in doubt whether this event or the civil commotions were more fatal to the territory of Italy the prodigy which happened in our own age was no less wonderful in the last year of the Emperor Nero as I have related in my history of his times when certain fields and olive grounds in the district of Maruchinum belonging to Factius Marcellus Roman knight, the steward of Nero changed places with each other although the public highway was interposed chapter 86 wonderful circumstances attending earthquakes inundations of the sea take place at the same time with earthquakes the water being impregnated with the same spirit and received into the bosom of the earth which subsides the greatest earthquake which has occurred in our memory was in the reign of Tiberius by which 12 cities of Asia were laid prostrate in one night they occurred the most frequently during the Punic war when we had accounts brought to Rome of 57 earthquakes in the space of a single year it was during this year that the Carthaginians and the Romans who were fighting at the lake Trasimines were neither of them sensible of a very great shock during the battle nor is it an evil merely consisting in the danger which is produced by the motion it is an equal or greater evil when it is considered as a prodigy the city of Rome never experienced a shock which was not the forerunner of some great calamity chapter 87 in what places the sea has receded the same cause produces an increase of the land the vapor when it cannot burst out forcibly lifting up the surface for the land is not merely produced by what is brought down from the rivers as the islands called Echinace are formed by the river Akelois and a greater part of Egypt by the Nile where according to Homer it was a day and a night's journey from the mainland to the island of Ferros but in some cases by the receding of the sea as according to the same author was the case with the Circayan islands the same thing also happened in the harbor of Ambracia for a space of 10,000 paces and was also said to have taken place for 5,000 at the Piraeus of Athens and likewise at Ephesus where formerly the sea washed the walls of the temple of Diana indeed if we may believe Herodotus the sea came beyond Memphis as far as the mountains of Ethiopia and also from the plains of Arabia the sea also surrounded Ilium and the whole of Teutonia and covered the plain through which the meander flows Chapter 88 the mode in which islands rise up land is sometimes formed in a different manner rising suddenly out of the sea as if nature was compensating the earth for its losses restoring in one place but she had swallowed up in another Chapter 89 what islands have been formed and at what periods Delos and Rhodes islands which have now long been famous are recorded to have risen up in this way more lately there have been some smaller islands formed Anapha which is beyond Milos Nia between Lemnos and the Hellespont Heloni between Labados and Theos Thera and Therasia among the Cyclades in the fourth year of the 135th Olympiad and among the same islands 130 years afterwards Harira also called Automaty made its appearance also Thea at the distance of two stadia from the former 110 years afterwards in our own times when M. Junius Silanus and L. Belbus were consuls on the 8th of the aides of July opposite to us and near to Italy among the Iolian islands an island emerged from the sea and likewise one near Crete 2500 paces in extent and with warm springs in it another made its appearance in the third year of the 163rd Olympiad in the Tuscan Gulf burning with a violent explosion there is a tradition too that a great number of fishes were floating about the spot and that those who employed them for food immediately expired it is said that the Pythagusan islands rose up in the same way in the Bay of Campania and that shortly afterwards the mountain Epopos had suddenly burst forth was reduced to the level of the neighboring plain in the same island it is said that the town was sunk in the sea that in consequence of another shock a lake burst out and that by a third Procretas was formed into an island the neighboring mountains being rolled away from it Chapter 90 Lands which have been separated by the sea in the ordinary course of things islands are also formed by this means the sea has torn Sicily from Italy Cyprus from Syria Iboia from Bioscia Atalanti and Macrus from Iboia Berspecus from Bethenia and Lucosia from the promontory of the sirens Chapter 91 Islands which have been united to the mainland again islands are taken from the sea and added to the mainland Antissa to Lesbos Sefirium to Helicarnassus Esusa to Mindus to Miscus and Perni to Miletus North Acusa to the promontory of Parthenium Haibenda which was formerly an island of Ionia is now 200 stadia distant from the sea Sirius is now become a part of Ephesus and in the same neighborhood Exodus and Sophonia form part of Magnesia while Epidorus and Oricum are no longer islands Chapter 92 Lands which have been totally changed into seas The sea has totally carried off certain lands and first of all if we are to believe Plato for an immense space where the Atlantic Ocean is now extended More lately we see what has been produced by our inland sea Arcarnania has been overwhelmed by the Embrasion Gulf Achaia by the Corinthian Europe and Asia by the Propontis and Pontus and besides these the sea has run the Sunder, Lukas, Antirium the Hellespont and the Dubosferi Chapter 93 Lands which have been swallowed up and not to speak of basin gulfs the earth feeds on itself it has devoured a very high mountain of Cybotus with the town of Curites also Cypolis in Magnesia and formerly in the same place a very celebrated city which was called Tantalis also the land belonging to the cities Galanis and Gamalis in Phoenicia together with the cities themselves also Vighium the most lofty ridge in Ethiopia Nor are the shores of the sea more to be depended upon Chapter 94 cities which have been absorbed by the sea the sea near the Pelis meiotis has carried away Pira and Antissa also Elicia and Bura in the Gulf of Corinth traces of which places are visible in the ocean from the island Sia it has seized on 30,000 paces which was suddenly torn off with many persons on them in Sicily also the half of the city of Tantalis and all the part of Italy which is wanting in like manner it carried off Ilusina in Biosia Chapter 95 Offense in the earth but let us say no more of earthquakes and of whatever may be regarded as the sepulchres of cities let us rather speak of the wonders of the earth than of the crimes of nature but by Hercules the history of the heavens themselves would not be more difficult to relate the abundance of metals so various so rich, so prolific rising up during so many ages when, throughout all the world so much is every day destroyed by fire by waste, by shipwreck, by wars and by frauds and while so much is consumed by luxury and by such a number of people the figures on gems so multiplied in their forms the variously coloured spots on certain stones and the whiteness of others excluding everything except light the virtues of medicinal springs and the perpetual fires bursting out in so many places for so many ages the exhalation of deadly vapours either emitted from caverns or from certain unhealthy districts some of them fatal to birds alone as at Serecte, a district near the city others to all animals except to man while others are so to man also as in the country of Sinuessa and Puteoli they are generally called vents and by some persons, caverns sewers from their exhaling and deadly vapour also at Amzanctum in the country of the herpeni at the temple of Mephites there's a place which kills all those who enter it and the same takes place at Hierapolis in Asia where no one can enter with safety except the priest of the great mother of the gods in other places, there are prophetic caves where those who are intoxicated with the vapour which rises from them predict future events as at the most noble of all oracles, Delphi in which cases, what mortal is there who can assign any other calls than the divine power of nature which is everywhere diffused and thus bursts forth in various places chapter 96 of certain lands which are always shaking and of floating islands there are certain lands which shake when anyone passes over them as in the territory of the Gabii not far from the city of Rome there are about 200 acres which shake when cavalry passes over it the same thing takes place at Royati there are certain islands which are always floating in the territory of the Secubum and of the above mentioned Royati of Mutina and of Stuttonia in the lake of Fadimonis and the waters of Cutilie there is a dark wood which is never seen in the same place for a day and a night together in Lidia the islands named Calaminé are not only driven about by the winds but maybe even push that pleasure from place to place by poles many citizens save themselves by this means in the Mithridatic war there are some small islands in an emphais called the Dancers because when choruses are sung they are moved by the motions of those who beat time in the great Italian lake of Tarkini there are two islands with groves on them which are driven about by the winds so as at one time to exhibit the figure of a triangle and at another of a circle but they never form a square end of section 12 recorded by Bianca in Utrecht, the Netherlands in January 2009 section 13 of the Natural History Volume 1 this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org recording by Linda Dodge the Natural History Volume 1 by Pliny the Elder translated by John Bostock and Henry Thomas Riley section 13 chapter 97 places in which it never rains there is at Paphos a celebrated temple of Venus in a certain court of which it never rains also at Nea a town of Troas in the spot which surrounds the statue of Minerva in this place also the remains of animals that are sacrificed never putrify chapter 98 the wonders of various countries collected together near Harpasa a town of Asia there stands a terrific rock which may be moved by a single finger but if it be pushed by the force of the whole body it resists a totalitarian peninsula in the state of the Parisini there is a kind of earth which cures all wounds about Asos in Troas a stone is found by which all bodies are consumed it is called sarcophagus there are two mountains near the river Indus the nature of one is to attract iron of the other to repel it hence if there be nails in the shoes the feet cannot be drawn off the one or set down on the other it has been noticed that at Locris and Crotona there has never been a pestilence nor have they ever suffered from an earthquake in Lycea there are always 40 calm days before an earthquake in the territory of Argaripa a corn which is sown never springs up at the altars of Mucius in the country of the Vaea and about Tusculum and in the Cimmerarian forest there are places in which things that are pushed into the ground cannot be pulled out again the hay which is grown in Crustominium is noxious on the spot but elsewhere it is wholesome Chapter 99 concerning the cause of the flowing and ebbing of the sea much has been said about the nature of waters but the most wonderful circumstance is the alternate flowing and ebbing of the tides which exist indeed under various forms but is caused by the sun and the moon the tide flows twice and ends twice between each two risings of the moon always in the space of 24 hours first the moon rising with the stars swells out the tide and after some time having gained the summit of the heavens she declines from the meridian and sets and the tides subsides again after she has set and moves in the heavens under the earth as she approaches the meridian on the opposite side the tide flows in after which it recedes until she again rises to us but the tide of the next day is never at the same time with that of the preceding as if the planet was in attendance greedily drinking up the sea and continually rising in a different place from what she did the day before the intervals are however equal being always of six hours indeed in respect of any particular day or night or place but equinoctial hours and therefore they are unequal as estimated by the length of common hours since a greater number of them fall on certain days or nights and they are never equal everywhere except at the equinox this is a great, most clear and even divine proof of the dullness of those eyes that the stars go below the earth and rise up again and that nature presents the same face in the same states of their rising and setting for the course of the stars is equally obvious in the one case as in the other producing the same effect as when it is manifest to the sight there is a difference in the tides depending on the moon of a complicated nature first as to the period of seven days for the tides are of moderate height from the new moon to the first quarter from this time they increase and are highest at the fall then they decrease on the seventh day they are equal to what they were at the first quarter and they again increase from the time that she is at the first quarter on the other side at her conjunction with the sun they are equally high as at the fall when the moon is in the northern hemisphere and recedes further from the earth the tides are lower than when going towards the south she exercises her influence at a less distance after an interval of eight years and the hundredth revolution of the moon the periods and the heights of the tides return to the same order as at first always acting upon them and all these effects are likewise increased by the annual changes of the sun the tides rising up higher at the equinoxes and more so at the autumnal than at the vernal while they are lower about the winter solstice and still more so at the summer solstice not indeed precisely at the points of time which I have mentioned but a few days after for example not exactly at the fall nor at the new moon but after them and not immediately when the moon becomes visible or invisible or has advanced to the middle of her course but generally about two hours later than the equinoctial hours the effect of what is going on in the heavens being felt after a short interval as we observe with respect to lightning thunder and thunderbolts but the tides of the ocean cover greater spaces and produce greater inundations than the tides of the other seas whether it be that the whole of the universe taken together is more full of life than its individual parts or that the large open space feels more sensibly the power of the planet as it moves freely about than when restrained within narrow bounds on which account neither lakes nor rivers are moved in the same manner Pytheas of Messilia informs us that in Britain the tide rises 80 cubits inland seas are enclosed as in a harbor but in some parts of them there is more free space which obeys the influence among many other examples the force of the tide will carry us in three days from Italy to Utica when the sea is tranquil and there is no impulse from the sails but these motions are more felt about the shores than in the deep parts of the seas as in the body the extremities of the veins feel the pulse which is the vital spirit more than the other parts and in most estuaries on account of the unequal rising of the stars in each tract the tides differ from each other but this respects the period not the nature of them as is the case in the Cirtus chapter 100 where the tides rise and fall in an unusual manner there are however some tides which are of a peculiar nature as in the Torimnian Euripus where the ebb and the flow is more frequent than in other places and in Uboa they play seven times during the day and the night these tides intermit three times during each month being the seventh, eighth and ninth day of the moon at Gades which is very near the temple of Hercules there is a spring enclosed like a well which sometimes rises and falls with the ocean and at other times in both respects contrary to it in the same place there is another well which always agrees with the ocean on the shores of the Betis there is a town where the wells become lower when the tide rises and fill again when it ebbs while at other times they remain stationary the same thing occurs in one well in the town of Hispalus where there is nothing peculiar in the other wells the Euchsen always flows into the propontus the water never flowing back into the Euchsen chapter 101 wonders of the sea all seas are purified at the full moon some also at stated periods at Messina and Mylai a refuse matter like Dung is cast up upon the shore whence originated the story of the oxen of the sun having had their stable at that place to what has been said above not to emit anything with which I am acquainted Aristotle adds that no animal dies except when the tide is ebbing the observation has been often made on the ocean of Gaul but it has only been found true with respect to man chapter 102 the power of the moon over the land and the sea hence we may certainly conjecture that the moon is not unjustly regarded as the star of our life this it is that replenishes the earth when she approaches it she fills all bodies while when she recedes she empties them from this cause which grow with her increase and that those animals which are without blood more particularly experience her influence also that the blood of man is increased or diminished in proportion to the quantity of her light also that the leaves and vegetables generally as I shall describe in the proper place feel her influence her power penetrating all things chapter 103 the power of the sun fluids are dried up by the heat of the sun we have therefore regarded it as a masculine star burning up and absorbing everything chapter 104 why the sea is salt hence it is that the widely diffused sea is impregnated with the flavor of salt in consequence of what is sweet and mild being evaporated from it which the force of fire easily accomplishes while all the more acrid and thick matter is left behind on which account the water of the sea is less salt at some depth than at the surface and this is a more true cause of the acrid flavor then that the sea is continued perspiration of the land or that the greater part of the dry vapor is mixed with it or that the nature of the earth is such that it impregnates the waters and as it were medicates them among the prodigies which have occurred there is one which happened when Dionysus the tyrant of Sicily was expelled from his kingdom that for the space of one day the water in the harbor became sweet the moon on the contrary is said to be a feminine and delicate planet and also nocturnal also that it resolves humors and draws them out but does not carry them off it is manifest that the carcasses of wild beasts are rendered putrid by its beams that during sleep it draws up the accumulated torpor into the head that it melts ice and relaxes all things by its moistening spirit thus the changes of nature compensate each other and are always adequate to their destined purpose some of them congealing the elements of the stars and others dissolving them the moon is said to be fed by fresh and the sun by salt water chapter 105 where the sea is the deepest Fabianus informs us that the greatest depth of the sea is 15 stadia we learn from others that in the Eucson opposite to the nation of the coraxi is what is called the depths of the Eucson about 300 stadia from the mainland the sea is immensely deep no bottom having been found chapter 106 the wonders of fountains and rivers it is very remarkable that fresh water should burst out close to the sea as from pipes but there is no end to the wonders that are connected with the nature of waters fresh water floats on seawater no doubt from its being lighter and therefore seawater which is of a heavier nature supports better what floats upon it and in some places different kinds of fresh water float upon each other as that of the river which falls into the fucanus that of the Adua into the Larius of the Titianus into the Verbanus of the Mincius into the Benacus of the Aulius into the Sevinus and of the Rhone into the Layman Lake this last being beyond the Alps the others in Italy all which rivers passing through the lakes for many miles generally carry off no more water than they bring with them the same thing is said to occur in the Orantes a river of Syria and in many others from a real hatred of the sea pass under it as does Arathusa a fountain of Syracuse in which the substances are found that are thrown into the Alpheus which after flowing by Olympia is discharged into the sea on the shore of the Peloponnesius the Lycus in Asia there are Sinus in Argolis and the Tigris in Mesopotamia sink into the earth and burst out again substances which are thrown into the fountain of Oculopius at Athens are cast up at the fountain of Phalarum the river which sinks into the ground in the plain of Atonum comes up again at a distance of 20 miles and the Temipus does the same in Aqualia in the lake Asphaltites in Judea which produces bitumen no substance will sink nor in the lake Arathusa in the greater Armenia in this lake although it contains Niter fish are found in the country of the Salantini near the town of Manduria a lake full to the brim the waters of which are never diminished by what is taken out of it nor increased by what is added wood which is thrown into the river of the Sikonus or into the lake Villanus in Pysynum becomes coated with a stony crust while in the Sirius a river of Colchis the whole substance becomes as hard as stone in the same manner in the Solaris beyond Sorrentum not only twigs which are immersed in it but likewise leaves are petrified the water at the same time being proper for drinking in the stream which runs from the marsh of Riate there is a rock which continues to increase in size and in the red sea olive trees and green shrubs are produced there are many springs which are remarkable for their warmth this is the case even among the ridges of the Alps and in the sea itself between Italy and Inaria as in the Bay of Bia and in the Lyrus and many other rivers there are many places in which fresh water can be procured from the sea as at the Celadonian Isles and at Arados and in the ocean at Gadas green plants are produced in the warm springs of Padua frogs in those of Pisa and fish in those of Vechelonia Inetruria which is not far from the sea in Casinas there is a cold river which in summer is more full of water in this, as in the River Stemphalis in Arcadia small water mice are produced the fountain of Jupiter in Dodona although it is as cold as ice and extinguishes torches that are plunged into it yet if they be brought near it it kindles them again this spring always becomes dry at noon from which circumstances it is called Anapanominon it then increases and becomes full at midnight after which it again visibly decreases in Elykrium there is a cold spring over which if garments are spread they take fire the pool of Jupiter Ammon which is cold during the day is warm during the night in the country of the Troglodity what they call the fountain of the sun about noon is fresh and very cold it then gradually grows warm and at midnight it becomes hot and saline in the middle of the day during summer the source of the pool as if reposing itself is always dry in the island of Tinnados there is a spring which after the summer solstice is full of water from the third hour of the night to the sixth the fountain in Opus in the island of Delos decreases and increases in the same manner as the Nile and also at the same periods there is a small island in the sea opposite to the river Tinnavus containing warm springs and decrease at the same time with the tides of the sea in the territory of Pitonum on the other side of the Appens the river Novenus which during the solstice is quite a torrent is dry in the winter in Feliscum all the water which the oxen drink turns them white in Bocha the river Melis turns the sheet black the Cephasis which flows out of a lake of the same name turns them white again the Penaeus turns them black and the Xanthus near Ilium makes them red whence the river derives its name in Pontus the river Astases water certain plains where the mayors give black milk which the people use in diet in Riate there is a spring called Nminia which rises up sometimes in one place and sometimes in another and in this way indicates a change in the produce of the earth there is a spring in the harbor of Brandesium that yields water which never becomes putrid at sea the water of the Lincestis which is said to be acidulous intoxicates like wine this is the case also in Paphlegonia and in the territory of Calanum in the island of Andros at the temple of Father Bacchus we are assured by Musianus who was thrice council that there is a spring which on the knowns of January always has the flavor of wine it is called Dios Fiodosia there Ninochris in Arcadia the Styx which is not unlike it either in odor or in color instantly destroys those who drink it also in Librosis a hill in the country of the Tauri there are three springs which inevitably produce death but without pain in the territory of the Carinensis in Spain two springs burst out close together the one of which absorbs everything the other throws them out in the same country there is another spring which gives to all the fish the appearance of gold although when out of the water they do not differ in any respect from other fish in the territory of Como near the Laurian lake there is a copious spring which always swells up every hour in the island of Sidonia before Lesbos there is a warm fountain which flows only during the spring season the lake Cinaeus in Asia is impregnated with warm wood which grows about it at Colophon in the cave of the Clarion Apollo there is a pool by the drinking of which a power is acquired of uttering wonderful oracles the lives of those who drink of it are shortened in our own times during the last years of Nero's life we have seen rivers flowing backwards as I have stated in my history of his times and indeed who can be mistaken as to the fact that all springs are colder in summer than in winter as well as these other wonderful operations of nature that copper and lead sink but float when spread out and of things that are equally heavy some will sink to the bottom others will remain on the surface that heavy bodies are more easily moved in water that a stone from Scyros although very large will float while the same when broken into small pieces sinks that the body of an animal newly deprived of life sinks but that when it is swelled out it floats that empty vessels are drawn out of the water with no more ease than those that are full that rain water is more useful for salt pits than other kinds of water that salt cannot be made unless it is mixed with fresh water that salt water freezes with more difficulty and is more readily heated that the sea is warmer in winter and more salt in the autumn that everything is soothed by oil and that this is the reason why divers send out small quantities of it from their mouths because it soothes any part which is rough and transmits the light to them that snow never falls in the deep part of the sea that although water generally has a tendency downwards fountains rise up and that this is the case of a lot of etna burning as it does so as to force out the sand like a ball of flame to the distance of 150 miles end of section 13 section 14 of the natural history volume 1 this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information auto-volunteer vox.org recording by Timothy Ferguson the natural history volume 1 by Pliny the Elder translated by John Bondstock and Henry Thomas Riley section 14 chapter 107 the wonders of fire and water united and now I must give an account of some of the wonders of fire which is the fourth element of nature but first those produced by means of water chapter 108 of Maltha in Samasota a city of Comageni there is a pool which discharges an inflammable mud called Maltha it adheres to every solid body which it touches and moreover when touched it follows you if you attempt to escape from it by means of it the people defended their walls against the Silas and the soldiers were burned in their armour it is even set on fire in water we learn by experience that it can be extinguished only by earth chapter 109 of Naphtha Naphtha is a substance of similar nature it is so called about Babylon and in the territory of the Astassini in Parthia flowing like liquid bitumen it has a great affinity to fire which instantly darts on it whenever it is seen it is said that in this way it was that Medea burned Jason's mistress her crown having taken fire when she approached the altar for the purpose of sacrificing chapter 110 places which are always burning among the wonders of the mountains there is Etna which always burns in the night and for so long a period has always had materials for combustion being in the winter buried in snow and having the ashes which it has ejected covered with frost nor is it in this mountain alone that nature rages threatening to consume the earth in Faselis the mountain Chimera burns and indeed with a continual flame day and night Ctesias of Canidus informs us that this fire is kindled by water while it is extinguished by earth and by hay in the same country of Lyca the mountains of Haviestus when touched with a flaming torch burns so violently that even the stones in the river and the sand burn while actually in the water this fire is also increased by rain if a person makes furrows in the ground with a stick which has been kindled at this fire it is said that a stream of flame will follow it the summit of Cophantas in Bactria burns during the night and this is the case in Medea and its citizen on the borders of Persia likewise in Sousa at the White Tower from 15 apertures the greatest of which also burns in the daytime the plane of Babylon throws up flame from a place like a fish pond an acre in extent near Hesperium a mountain of the Ethiopians the fields shine in the night time like stars the same thing takes place in the territory of the Megalopolotani however is internal, mild and not burning the foliage of a dense wood which is over it there is also the crater of Nymphram which is always burning in the neighbourhood of a cold fountain which according to Theopompus presages direful calamities to the inhabitants of Apollonia it is increased by rain and throws out bitumen which becoming mixed with the fountain renders it unfit to be tasted it is, at other times all the bitumens but what are these compared to other wonders Hiera one of the Aeolian Isles in the middle of the sea, near Italy together with the sea itself during the social war burned for several days until expiation was made by a deputation from the senate there is a hillan Ethiopia called Theon Okhima which burns with the greatest violence throwing out flame that consumes everything like the sun in so many places and with so many fires does nature burn the earth chapter 111 wonders of fire alone but since this one element is of so prolific a nature as to produce itself and to increase from the smallest spark what must we suppose will be the effect of all those funereal piles of the earth what must be the nature of that thing which in all parts of the world supplies this most greedy veracity without destroying itself to these fires must be added those innumerable stars and the great sun itself there are also the fires made by men those which are innate in certain kinds of stones those produced by the friction of wood and those in the clouds which give rise to lightning it really exceeds all other wonders but one single day should pass in which everything is not consumed especially when we reflect that concave mirrors placed opposite to the sun's rays produce flame more readily than any other kind of fire and that numerous small but natural fires are bound everywhere in infame there issues from a rock a fire which is kindled by rain it also issues from the waters of Scantia this indeed is a feeble flame since it passes off remaining only for a short time on any body to which it is applied an ash tree which overshadows this fiery spring remains always green in the territory of Mutina fire issues from the ground on the days that are consecrated to Vulcan it is stated by some authors that if a burning body falls onto the fields below Arichia the ground is set on fire and that the stones in the territory of the Sabines and of the Sidnesi if they be oiled burn with flame in Ignatia a town of Selentium there is a sacred stone upon which when wood is placed flame immediately bursts forth in the altar of Junolikinia which is in the open air the ashes remain unmoved although the winds may be blowing from all quarters it appears also that there are sudden fires both in the waters and even in the human body that the whole of Lake Thrasmenis was on fire that when Severus Tullius while a child was sleeping flame darted out from his head and Valerius Antius informs us that the same flame appeared around El Marcius when he was pronouncing the funeral oration over the Scipios who were killed in Spain and exhorting soldiers to avenge their death I shall presently mention more facts of this nature and in a more distinct manner in this place these wonders are mixed up with other subjects but my mind having carried me beyond the mere interpretation of nature is anxious to lead as it were by the hand the thoughts of my readers over the whole globe. Chapter 112 The Dimensions of the Earth Our part of the Earth of which I propose to give an account floating as it were in the ocean which surrounds it as I have mentioned above stretches out to the greatest extent from east to west Tullius consecrated to Hercules at Gades being a distance of 8,568 miles according to the statement of Artemidorus or according to that of Isiodorus 9,818 miles Ametodorus adds to this 491 miles from Gades going round by the sacred promontory to the promontory of Artebrum which is the most projecting part of Spain This measurement may be taken in two directions from the Ganges and its mouth where it discharges itself into the eastern ocean passing through India and Parthene to Maryandris, a city in Syria in the Bay of Issus is a distance of 5,215 miles then going directly by sea by the island of Cyprus Patra in Laikia Rhodes and Astapalia islands in the Kapathican Sea Lila Bayam in Sicily and Calaris in Sardinia is 2,103 miles then to Gades is 1,250 miles making the whole distance from the eastern ocean 8,568 miles the other way which is more certain is chiefly by land from the Ganges to the Euphrates is 5,169 miles then to Mascar a town in Cappadocia is 319 miles then through Frigia and Caria to Ephesus is 415 miles from Ephesus across the Aegean Sea to Delos is 200 miles to the Isthmus is 212 and 1,5 miles then first by land and afterwards by the Sea of Likaim and the Gulf of Corinth to Patrae in Peloponnesus 90 miles to the promontory of Lucati 7,5 miles as much more to Coquira to the Erosoenu and mountains 132,5 to Presidium 87,5 and to Rome 360 miles to the Alps at the village of Sygo Magum is 519 miles through Gaultu Iliberus at the Pyrenees 927 to the ocean and the coast of Spain 20 miles which distances according to the estimate of Atomedorus make together 8,945 miles the breadth of the earth from south to north is commonly supposed to be about one half only its length is 4,490 miles hence it is evident how much the heat has stolen from it on one side and the cold on the other for I do not suppose that the land is actually wanting or that the earth has not the form of a globe but that on each side the uninhabitable parts have not been discovered this measure then extends from the coast of the Ethiopian ocean the most distant part which is habitable to Merot 1,000 miles then to Alexandria 1,250 to Rhodes 562 to Knidos 87,5 to Coles 25 to Samos 100 to Kios 94 to Michaelene 65 to Tenedos 44 to the promontory of Cyginaum 12,5 to the entrance of the Uxen 312,5 to the promontory of the Carimbus 350 the entrance of the Paulus Mayotus 312,5 and to the mouth of the Tannus 275 miles which distance if we went by sea might be shortened 89 miles beyond the Tanaus the most diligent authors have not been able to obtain any accurate measurement Ametodorus supposes that everything beyond is undiscovered since he confesses that about the Tanaus the tribes of the Samesae dwell who extend toward the North Pole Isodorus adds 1,250 miles as the distance to Thule but this is mere conjecture for my part I believe that the boundaries of Samesae really extend to as greater distance as that mentioned above for if it were not very extensive how could it contain the innumerable tribes that are always changing their residence and indeed I consider the uninhabitable portion of the world to be still greater for it is well known that there are innumerable islands lying off the coast of Germany which have only lately been discovered the above is all I consider worth relating about the length and breadth of the earth but Orosthenes a man who was peculiarly well skilled in the more subtle parts of learning and in this above everything else and a person whom I perceive to be approved by everyone has stated the whole of this circuit to be 252,000 stadia which according to the Roman estimate makes 31,500 miles the attempt is presumptuous but it is supported by such subtle arguments that we cannot refuse our scent Hipparchus whom we must admire both for the ability with which he contraverts Orosthenes as well as for his diligence in everything else has added to the above number not much less than 25,000 stadia Dionysus Doris is certainly less worthy of confidence but I cannot admit this most remarkable instance of greece invanity he was a native of Milos and was celebrated for his knowledge of geometry he died of old age in his native country his female relations who inherited his property attended his funeral and when they had for several successive days performed the usual rites they are said to have found in his tomb an epistle written in his own name to those left above it stated that he had descended from his tomb to the lowest part of the earth and that it was a distance of 42,000 stadia there were not wanting certain geometricians who interpreted this epistle as if it had been sent from the middle of the globe the point which is at the greatest distance from the surface and which must necessarily be the center of the sphere hence the estimate has been made that it is 252,000 stadia in circumference chapter 113 the harmonical proportion of the universe that harmonical proportion which compels nature to be always consistent with itself obliges us to add to the above measure 12,000 stadia and this makes the earth 196th part of the whole universe summary the facts statements and observations contained in this book amount in number to 417 roman authors quoted envaro solpicus gallus titus Caesar the emperor cutiberio tullius tyro elpiso tilivius cornelius nipos sebosis calius antipater fabianus antyus makianus casino who wrote on the otruscan discipline, taquitius who did the same Julius Aquila who also did the same and sergius foreign authors quoted Plato, Hipparchus, Tamaeus Sosageans Petticirus Nessapods Pythagorean philosophers Poseidonus, Axiomanda Epigenes the philosopher who wrote on the theotomics euclid Coranus the philosopher Eudoxus Democritus Critidemus Thracillus Cerepion Dicearchus, Archimedes Oncicritus Eratosthenes Pythias Herotidus Aristotel Atomedorus of Ephesus Antheopombus End of section 14 Recording by Timothy Ferguson Gold Coast, Australia John Bostuck Henry Thomas Reilly Section 15 Book 3 Introduction and Chapters 1-3 Book 3 An account of countries, nations, seas, towns, havens, mountains, rivers, distances, and peoples who now exist or formerly existed. Introduction Thus far I have treated of the position and the wonders of the earth, of the waters, the stars, and the proportion of the universe and its dimensions. I shall now proceed to describe its individual parts, although indeed we may with reason look upon the task as of an infinite nature, and one not to be rashly commenced upon without incurring censure. And yet on the other hand, there was nothing which ought less to acquire an apology if it is only considered how far from surprising it is that a mere mortal cannot be acquainted with everything. I shall therefore not follow any single author, but shall employ in relation to each subject, such writers as I shall look upon as the most worthy of credit. For indeed it is the characteristic of nearly all of them that they display the greatest care and accuracy in the description of the countries in which they respectively flourished, so that by doing this I shall neither blame nor contradict anyone. The names of the different places will here be simply given and as briefly as possible. The account of their celebrity and the events which have given rise there too being deferred to a more appropriate occasion. For I must be remembered that I am here speaking of the earth as a whole, and I wish to be understood as using the names without any reference whatever to their celebrity, and as though the places themselves were in their infancy and had not as yet acquired any fame through great events. The name is mentioned, it is true, but only as forming a part of the world and the system of the universe. The whole globe is divided into three parts, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Our description commences where the sun sets and at the straits of Gades where the Atlantic Ocean bursting in is poured forth to the inland seas. As it makes its entrance from that side Africa is on the right hand and Europe on the left. Asia lies between them. The boundaries being the rivers Tanaeus and the Nile. The straits of the ocean of which I have just spoken extend 15 miles of length and 5 in breadth measured from the village of Maliaria in Spain to the album Promitorium or White Prometary Africa, as we learn from Tyranius Graculis, who was born in that vicinity. Titus Livius and Cornelius Nepos, however, have stated the breadth where it is leased to be 7 miles and were great as 10 from so small a mouth as this does so immense of expanse of water open upon us. Nor is our astonishment diminished by the fact of its being of great depth. For, instead of that, there are numerous breakers and shoals white with foam to strike the mariner with alarm. From this circumstance it is that many have called this spot the threshold of the Inalans sea. At the narrowest part of the straits there are mountains placed to form barriers to the entrance on either side. Abulah in Africa and Calpe in Europe. The boundaries formally of the labors of Hercules. Hence it is that the inhabitants have called them the Collins but they also believe that they were dug through by him upon which the sea, which was before excluded, gained admission and so changed the face of nature. Chapter 1 The boundaries and gulfs of Europe first set forth in a general way. I shall speak first of Europe, the foster mother of that people which has conquered all other nations and itself by far the most beauteous portion of the earth. Indeed many persons have not without reason considered it not as a third part only of the earth but as equal to all the rest looking upon the whole of our globe is divided into two parts only by a line drawn from the river Taneas to the straits of Gades. The ocean, after pouring the waters of the Atlantic through the inlet which I have here described and in its eager progress overwhelming all the lands which have to dread its approach skirts with its winding course the shores of those parts which offer a more effectual resistance hollowing out the coast of Europe especially into numerous bays among which there are four gulfs which are more particularly remarkable. The first of these begins at Calpe which I have previously mentioned the most distant mountain of Spain and bends according to an immense curve as far as Locre and the promontory of Brutium. The first land situated upon this gulf is that which is called the further Spain or Baitica next to which beginning at the frontier town of Urgy is the nearer or Terraconensian Spain extending as far as the chain of the Pyrenees. The farther Spain is divided lengthwise into two provinces Lucetania and Baitica the former stretching along the northern side of the latter and being divided from it by the river Ana. The source of this river is the district of Laminium in the nearer Spain. It first spreads out into a number of small lakes and then again contracts itself into a narrow channel or entirely disappears underground and after frequently disappearing and coming again to light finally discharges itself into the Atlantic Ocean. Terraconensian Spain lies on one side contiguous to the Pyrenees running downwards along the sides of that chain and stretching across from the Iberian Sea to the Gallic Ocean is separated from Baitica and Lucetania by Mount Solorius the chains of the Oritani and the Carpetani and those of the Astores. Chapter 3 of Baitica Baitica so called from the river which divides it in the middle excels all other provinces of its cultivation in the peculiar fertility and beauty of its vegetation. It consists of four jurisdictions those of Gades, of Corduba of Astigui and of Ispales. The total number of its towns is 175 of these nine are colonies and eight municipal towns 29 have been long since presented with the old Latin rights 6 are free towns 3 federate and 120 tributary in this district the things that more especially deserve notice or are more easily explained in the Latin tongue are the following beginning at the river Ana along the line of the seashore the town of Onoba surnamed Aestuaria the rivers Lucia and Urium flowing through this territory between the Ana and the Baitis the Marian mountains the river Baitis the coast of Corum with its winding bay opposite to which is Gades of which we shall have occasion to speak among the islands next comes the promontory of Juno and the port of Bicepo the town of Boelo and Mariaria at which Ladder begins the straights of the Atlantic Cartieia called by the Greeks and the mountain of Calpe along the coast of the Inland sea is the town of Barbosula with its river also Sarduba the town of Suell and also Malaika with its river one of the federate towns next to this comes Minoba with its river then Sexaforum surnamed Iulium Selambina, Abdera and Merki which is at the boundary of Baitica Marcus Agrippa suppose that all this coast was people by colonists of Punic origin beyond the Anas and facing the Atlantic is the country of the Baistuli and the Turdatani Marcus Varo informs us that the Iberians the Persians, the Phoenicians the Celts and the Carthaginians spread themselves over the whole of Spain and that the name Lusitania is derived from the games Lusus, a father Bacchus or the fury Lysa of his frantic attendance and that Pan was the governor of the whole of it but the traditions respecting Hercules and Pirini as well as Saturn I conceived to be fabulous in the highest degree the Baitis does not rise as some rivers have asserted near the town of Maintissa in the province of Turaco but in the Tugianzian forest and near it rises the river Tader which waters the territory of Carthage at Yorkum it turns away from the funeral pile of Scipio then taking a sweep to the left it falls into the Atlantic Ocean giving its name to this province at its source it is but small though during its course it receives many other streams which it deprives as well as of their waters as of the renown it first enters Baitica in Ossitica Nia and glides gently with a smooth current past many towns situate on either side of its banks between this river and the seashore the most celebrated places inland are Segida also surname Algorena Yulia called Fidentia Orago or Alba Eborra or Cerealis Iberra or Liberini Ipula or Laos Ortegi or Yuliensis Weski or Faventia Singili Atengua Aridulunum Aglamina Bibro Castravinaria Kisimbrium Hippo Nova or New Hippo Yorko Oscar Churati All which towns are in that part of Bastania which extends towards the sea but in the jurisdiction of Corduba In the neighborhood of the river itself is Ossigi also surname Lyconium Yuturgi or Forum Yulium Ipasturgi or Triumphale Setia and 14 miles inland Obokal which is also called Pontifikense Next to these comes Ipura a federate town Cycle and Martialum and Onoba On the right bank is Corduba a Roman colony surname Patricia Here the Bytus first becomes navigable There are also the towns of Carbola and Dentuna and the river Singulis which falls into the Bytus on the same side The towns in the jurisdiction of Isbalis are the following Kelti, Aurora Canama, Evia Ipa, surnamed Ia and Italica On the left of the river is the colony of Isbalis named Romoluclius and on the opposite side the town of Osset surnamed Yulia Constantia Rogentum or Yuligenius or Repo Caura Cyrium in the river Inoba between the estuaries of the Bytus lie the towns of Nebrisa surnamed Weneria and of Colobona The colonies are Asta which is also called Regia and more inland that of Asidu surnamed Caesareana The river Singulis discharging itself into the Bytus that the place already mentioned washes the colony of Astigi and Augusta Ferma at which place it becomes navigable The other colonies in this jurisdiction which are exempt from the tribute are Tuqi surnamed Augusta Gamela Itucci called Rietus Yulia Atubi or Claritus Yulia Urso or Genua Urbenorum and among them in former times Munda which was taken with the son of Pompeii The free towns are called Astigi and Ostipo The tributary towns are Calet Calecula Castragamina and the lesser Yipula Merucra Sacrana Obecula and Oningis As you move away from the sea coast near where the river Minoba is navigable you find at no great distance the Atontigi Kele and the Austotigi and the Alostigi The country which extends from the Baitis to the river Anas beyond the districts already described is called Baitoria and is divided into two parts in the same number of nations the Celticii who border upon Lusitania in the jurisdiction of Hispalis and the Tortuli who dwell on the verge of Lusitania and Tarokanensis and are under the protection of the laws of Corduba It is evident that the Celticii have sprung from the Keltaibiri and have come from Lusitania from the religious rites the language and the names of their towns which in Baitica are distinguished by the following epithets which have been given to them Serlia has received the surname of Fama Yulia Nertobriga that of Concordia Yulia Segida that of Restituta Yulia and Contributa that of Yulia What is now Corriga was formerly Ocoto Niacom Constantia Yulia was Lacone Mergos the present Fortinales were the Teirisis and the Emaniei were the Calensis besides these they are in Celtica the towns of Akinipo, Arunda Aruri, Turobriga Lastigi Sapeza, Saipone and Seripo The other Bitoria which we have mentioned is inhabited by the Turiduli and in the jurisdiction of Cordoba has some towns which are by no means inconsiderable Arsa, Malaria Merobriga and Sisapo in the district of Ocintias To the jurisdiction of Gades belongs Regina with Roman citizens and Laipia Ulia, Carissa surnamed Aurelia or Castrum Yulium likewise called Caesaurus Salutuniansis all of which enjoy the Latin Rites The tributary towns are Beisaro, Belipo Barbesula, Laipipo Beisipo, Calet Capacunum, Alestrao Ituki, Brana Laikibi, Saguntia and Audurisa Marcus Agrippa has also stated the whole length of this province to be 475 miles and that its breadth 257 But this was at a time when its boundaries extended to Carthage a circumstance which has often caused great errors in calculations which are generally the result either of changes affected in the limits of provinces or in the fact that in the reckoning of distances the length of the miles has been arbitrarily increased or diminished In some parts too the sea has been long making encroachments upon the land and in others again the shores have advanced while the course of rivers in this place has been more serpentine and that more direct and then besides some riders began their measurements at one place and some at another and so proceed in different directions and hence the result is that no two accounts agree At the present day the length of Bytica from the town of Castulo and from here to Gades is 250 miles and from Murci which lies on the sea coast 25 miles more The breadth measured from the coast of Cartiaia is 234 miles Who is there that can entertain the belief that a grippa a man of such extraordinary diligence and one who bestowed so much care on his subject when he proposed to place before the eyes of the world He should be guilty of such a mistake as this and that too when seconded by the late emperor the divine Augustus for it was that emperor who completed the portico which had been begun by his sister and in which the survey was to be kept in conformity with the plan and descriptions of Marcus Agrippa End of Section 15 Section 16 of the Natural History Volume 1 of Nearer Spain The ancient form of the Nearer Spain like that of many other provinces is somewhat changed since the time of the provinces, is somewhat changed, since the time when Pompey the Great, upon the trophies which he erected in the Pyrenees, testified that 877 towns, from the Alps to the borders of the Farther Spain, had been reduced to subjugation by him. The whole province is now divided into seven jurisdictions, those of Carthage, of Tiraco, of Caesar Augusta, of Clunia, of Astorica, of Lucus, and of the Bricara. To these are to be added the islands, which will be described on another occasion, as also 293 states which are dependent on others, besides which the province contains 179 towns, of these 12 are colonies, 13 towns with the rights of the Roman citizens, 18 with the old Latin rights, and one Confederate, and 135 Tribustary. The first people that we come to on the coast are the Bistuli, after whom, proceeding according to the order which I shall follow, as we go inland, there are the Mente Sani, the Oretane, and the Carpetane, on the Tagus, and next to them are the Vacaí, and the Wectonis, and the Cultiberian Aravaki. The towns nearest to the coast are the Urchi and the Bayara, included in Baitica. The district of Mavetania, next to it, Deitania, and then Constanztaria, and the colony of Carthagonova, from the promontory of which, known as the Promontorium Satoni, to the city of Caesarea and Moritania, the passage is a distance of 183 miles. The remaining objects worthy of the attention on the coast are the river Tader, and the free colony of the Ilici, whence the Ilicitinian Gulf derives its name. To this colony, the Icostani are subordinate. We next have Lucentium, holding Latin rights, Deanium, a Tributary town, and the river Sucro, and, in former times, a town of the same name, forming the frontier of Constanztania. Next is the district of Aditania, with the delightful expanse of a lake before it, and extending backward to Cultiberia, while Atinia, a colony, is situated three miles from the sea, after which comes the river Turium and Saguntum, at the same distance, a town of Roman citizens famous for its fidelity. The river Uduba, and the district of the Orgaiones, the Ibaris, a river enriched by its commerce, takes its rise in the country of the Caltabre, not far from the town of Yuliobriga, and flows the distance of 450 miles, 260 of which, from the town of Varia, namely, it is available for the purposes of navigation. From this river, the name of Iberia has been given by the Greeks to the whole of Spain. Next comes the district of Cosestania, the river Subi, and the colony of Turaco, which was built by the Scipios, as Carthage was built by the Carthaginians. Then the district of the Yurgates, the town of Subur, and the river Rubricantum, beyond which is the Leitani and the Indigates. Behind these, in the order of which they will be mentioned, going back from the foot of the Pyrenees, are the Ostintani, the Laketani, and along the Pyrenees, the Caritani, next to whom are the Vasconis. On the coast is the colony of Barquino, surnamed Faventia, by Tullo and Yoroh, towns with Roman citizens. The river Larnum, Blondae, the river Alba, Impore, a city consisting of two parts, one people by the original inhabitants, the other by the Greek descendants of the Fokians, and the river Tiker. From this to the Buenos Pirania, on the other side of the promontory, is a distance of 40 miles. I shall now proceed to give an account of the more remarkable things in these several jurisdictions, in addition to those which have already been mentioned. Forty-three different peoples are subject to the jurisdiction of the courts of Turaco. Of these, the most famous are, holding the rights of Roman citizens, the Dutusani and the Bessar-Gitani, enjoying Latin rights, and the Alcitani and the Caritani, both Julian and Augusto, and Edetani and the Gerudenses. The Gesorianses and the Tari, also called Julienses. Among the tributaries are the Aquidal-Denses, the Onenses, and the Baculonenses. Caesor Augusta, a free colony watered by the river Iberus, on the site of the town formerly called Sauduba, is situated in the district of Edetania, and is the resort of 55 nations. Of these there are, with the rights of Roman citizens, the Belletani, the Celsenses, a former colony, the Caligurtani, surnamed the Nasiki. Gerudenses, of the nation of the Sodaiones, near whom is the river Sikorus. The Okenses, in the district of Ouesquitania, and the Toria Sonenses. Of these, enjoying the rights of the ancient Latins, there are the Cascontenses, the Ergavi-Kenses, the Grecoratane, the Leonikenses, and the Oseke-Denses. A federate states there are the Tereganes, and of the tributaries, the Acrobigenses, and the Andolo-Genses, the Aracalitane, and Bersianenses, and Caliguritane, who are also surnamed the Fibula-Renses, the Campalintunenses, the Carenses, the Kikenses, the Cortunenses, the Dalmotane, and the Lionenses, the Lursenses, the Lomberitane, the Lakitane, the Lubyenses, the Popempeleenses, and the Segeenses. Sixty-five nations resort to Carthage, besides the inhabitants of the islands. Of the Akhetianian colony, there are the Gemilenses in the town of Libesona, surnamed Foro Agustana, to both of which have been granted Italian rights. Of the colony of Salaria, there are the people of the following towns enjoying the rights of ancient Latium. The Castullo-Nenses, also called the Castar-Wenales, the Saitibietane, or Augustane, and the Valeriances. The best known among the tributaries are the Alabanenses, the Bastitane, the Cosa-Borenses, the Dionenses, and the Igueles-Diani, the Yorikitane, the Lamentane, the Mentansane, both those called Oratane, and those called Bastuli, and the Orantane, who are surnamed Germane. The people of Segobria, the capital of Celtiberia, those of Toletum, the capital of Capetania, situate on the River Tagus, and after them the Vietenses and the Regalienses. To the jurisdiction of Clunia, the Varduli contribute fourteen nations, of whom we need only particularize the Albanenses, the Turo-Mordigui, consisting of four tribes, among which are the Segomonenses and the Segesi-Mealeuenses. To the same jurisdiction belong the Carites, and the Viennese, with five states, among whom are the Velenses. Ditherto resort the Pelidones of the Celtiberians, in four different nations, among whom the Numantini were especially famous. Also among the eighteen states of the Huacai, there are the Intericatienses, the Palantini, the Lacrobi-Greenses, and the Calcienses, but among the seven peoples belonging to the Cantabria, Yuli-Obrega is the only place worthy of mention, and of the ten states of the Austragiones, Tritum, and Virovesca. The river Areva gives its name to our Arevica, of whom there are six towns, Segontia and Uxama, names which are frequently given to other places, as also Segovia and Nova Augusta, Termes and Clunia itself, and the frontier of Celtiberia. The remaining portion turns off towards the ocean, being occupied by the Varduli, already mentioned, and the Cantabria. Next upon these touch the twenty-two nations of the Astores, which are divided into the Augustani and the Transmontani, with the magnificent city of Austerica. Among these we have the Quigori, the Pisci, the Lacanensis, and the Zoelai. The total number of the free population amounts to 240,000 persons. The jurisdiction of Lucus embraces that of the Celtic and the Labuni, sixteen different nations, but little known, and with barbarous names. The number, however, of the free population amounts to nearly 166,000. In a similar manner the twenty-four states of the jurisdiction of the Prakari contain a population of 175,000, among whom, besides the Prakari themselves, we may mention, without wearying the reader, the Babali, the Coelerni, the Galica, the Hequasi, the Limiki, and the Queerni. The length of the nearest Spain from the Pyrenees to the frontier of Castulo is 607 miles, and a little more if we follow the line of the coast, while its breadth, from Toraco to the shore of Alarosson, is 307 miles. From the foot of the Pyrenees, where it is wedged in by the near approach of the two seas, it gradually expands until it touches the farther Spain, and thereby acquires a width more than double. Nearly the whole Spain abounds in minds of lead, iron, copper, silver, and gold, and in the nearer Spain there is also found Lapis Specularos. In Baitica there is Quinebar. There are also quarries of marble. The emperor, Vespanianos Augustus, while still harassed by the storms that agitated the Roman state, conferred the Latian right on the whole of Spain. The Pyrian mountains divide Spain from Gaul, their extremities projecting into the two seas on either side. End of Section 16 Section 17 of the Natural History, Volume 1. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. The Natural History, Volume 1 by Pliny the Elder. Translated by John Bostock and Henry Thomas Reilly. Section 17. Book 3. Chapter 5 of the Province of Gallia Narbonensis. That part of the Gallias which is washed by the inland sea is called the Province of Gallia Narbonensis, having formally borne the name of Bracata. It is divided from Italy by the river Varus and by the range of the Alps, the great safeguards of the Roman Empire. From the remainder of Gaul on the north it is separated by the mountains Cabena and Eura. In the cultivation of the soil, the manors, and civilization of the inhabitants, and the extent of its wealth, it is surpassed by none of the provinces, and in short, might be more truthfully described as a part of Italy than as a province. On the coast we have the district of the Sordones and more inland that of the Can Suorani. The rivers are the Tecum and the Buenos Dubrum. The towns are Eibris, the scanty remains of what was formerly a great city, and Ruschino, a town with Latin rites. We then come to the river Atox, which flows from the Pyrenees and passes through the Rubrencian Lake. The town of Narbo Martius, a colony of the 10th Legion, 12 miles distant from the sea, and the rivers Araris and Lyria. The towns are otherwise but few in number, in consequence of the numerous lakes which skirt the seashore. We have Agatha, formerly belonging to the Massilians, and the district of the Volcae Tectosages. And there is the spot where Rhoda, a Rhodian colony, formerly stood, from which the river takes its name, Rodanus. The stream by far the most fertilizing of any and either of the Galleas. Descending from the Alps and rushing through Lake Lemanus, it carries along with it the sluggish Arar, as well as the torrents of the Isara and the Druentia, no less rapid than itself. Its two mouths are called Libica, one being the Spanish, and the other the Metapinian mouth. The third and largest is called the Meseliatic. There are some authors who state that there was formerly a town called Heraclea at the mouth of the Rodanus, or Rhone. Beyond this are the canals leading out of the Rhone, a famous work of Gaius Marius, and still distinguished by his name. The lake of Mastramela, the town of Maritima, of the Avatiki, and above this the stony plains, memorable for the battles of Hercules. The district of the Anatilii, and more inland, that of the De Suviates and the Cavari. Again, close upon the sea, there is that of the Tricoriii, and inland, there are the Triculi, the Volcantiii, and the Sega Velaiaunii, and after them the Alabrogues. On the coast is Massilia, a colony of Phocian Greeks, and a federate city. We then have the promontory of Zao, the port of Kitarista, and the district of the Kamatuliiki, then the Swelterii, and above them the Verokini. Again on the coast we find Athenopolis, belonging to the Massilians, Forum Yuliii, Actavenorium, a colony which is also called Paquensis and Clasica. The river Argenteus, which flows through it, the district of the Axobiiii, and that of the Laugauni, above whom are the Swertrii, and the Quariates, and the Adunicates. On the coast we have Antipolis, a town with Latin rites, the district of the Dechiates, and the river Varus, which proceeds from Malkema, one of the Alps. The colonies in the interior are Aralate, Sextanorum, Beiterai, Septimanorum, and Arausio, Secundanorum. Melentia, in the territory of the Cavari, and Vienna, in that of the Alabrogues. The towns that enjoy Latin rites are Aquae Sextai, in the territory of the Saluviii, Avenio, in that of the Cavari, Aptayulio, in that of the Volguientes, Alebeke, in that of the Reii Apollonaris, Alba, in that of the Helvi, Augusta, in that of the Trichastini, Anatalia, Aria, the Bormani, the Comachi, Cabelio, Carcasum, in the territory of the Volcai Testosages, Caesero, Carpentoractae, in the territory of the Mamini, the Canichensis, the Cambolectri, surnamed the Atlantiki, Forum, Bocconi, Glanum Livi, the Lutevane, also called the Foronero Niences, Nemausum, in the territory of the Aeromiki, Piskenai, the Retuni, the Sanagatses, the Tolosane, in the territory of the Tetosages, on the confines of Aquatenia, the Tescone, the Tarosconiensis, the Umbraniki, Vasio, and Lucas Agusti, the two capitals of the federal state of the Volcontii. There are also 19 towns of less note, as well as 24 belonging to the people of Nemausum. To this list, the Emperor Galba added two tribes dwelling among the Alps, the Avantiki and the Bodiontiki, to whom belongs the town of Dinia. According to Agrippa, the length of the province of Gallia Nobonensis is 370 miles, its breadth 248. Chapter 6 of Italy Next comes Italy, and we begin with the Ligores, after whom we have Eturia, Umbria, Latium, where the miles of the Tiber situate, and Rome, the capital of the world, sixteen miles distant from the sea. We then come to the coasts of the Volski and Campania, and the districts of Pisenum, of Lucania, and of Brutium, where Italy extends the farthest into a southerly direction and projects into the two seas with the chain of the Alps, which there forms pretty neatly the shape of a crescent. Leaving Brutium, we come to the coast of Magna Graikia, then the Salentini, the Pedoculli, the Apulli, the Peligini, the Frantani, the Marocchini, the Westini, the Sabini, the Pecentis, the Galli, the Umbri, the Tuschi, the Winete, the Carni, the Yapides, the Istri, and the Luberni. I am by no means unaware that I might be justly accused of ingratitude and indolence, were, I to describe thus briefly, and in so cursory a manner, the land, which is at once the foster child and the parent of all lands, chosen by the providence of the gods to render even heaven itself more glorious, to unite the scattered empires of the earth, to bestow a polish upon men's manners, to unite the discordant and uncouth dialects of so many nations by the powerful ties of one common language, to confer the enjoyments of discourse and of civilization upon mankind, and to become, in short, the mother country of all nations of the earth. But how shall I embrace this undertaking, so vast as the number of celebrated places, what man living could enumerate them all, and so great the renown attached to each individual nation and subject, that I feel myself quite at a loss? The city of Rome, alone, which forms a portion of it, a face well worthy of shoulders so beauteous, how larger work would it require for any appropriate description? And then to the coast of Campania, taken singily by itself, so blessed with natural beauties and opulence, that it is evident that when nature formed it, she took a delight in accumulating all her blessings in a single spot. How am I to do justice to it? And then the climate, with its internal freshness, and so replete with health and vitality, the sereneness of the weather so enchanting, the field so fertile, the hillsides so sunny, the thickets so free from every danger, the groves so cool and shady, the forests with the vegetation so varying and so luxuriant, the breezes descending from so many a mountain, the fruitfulness of its grain, its vines, and its olives so transcendent, its flocks with fleeces so noble, its bulls with necks so sinewy, its lakes recurring in never-ending secession, its numerous rivers and springs will refresh it with their waters on every side, its seas so many a number, its havens and the bosom of its lands opening everywhere to the commerce of all the world, as if it were eagerly stretching forth into the very midst of the waves, for the purpose of aiding it, as if it were the endeavors of mortals. For the present I forbear to speak of its genius, its manners, its men, and the nations whom it has conquered by eloquence and force of arms. The very Greeks themselves, erased fond in the extreme of expatiating on their own praises, have amply given judgment in its favor, when they named but a small part of it Magna Gracchia. But we must be content to do on this occasion as we have done in our description of the heavens. We must only touch upon some of these points, and take notice of but a few of its stars. I only beg my readers to bear in mind that I am thus hastening on for the purpose of giving a general description of everything that is known to exist throughout the whole world. I may premise by observing that this land very much resembles in shape and oak leaf, being much longer than it is broad. Towards the top of it it inclines to the left, while it terminates in the form of an Amazonian buckler in which the spot at the central projection is the place called the Coquintos, while it sends forth two horns at the end of its crescent-shaped bays, Loicopatra on the right and Likinium on the left. It extends in length 1,020 miles if we measure from the foot of the Alps at Praetoria Augusta through the city of Rome and Capua to the city of Regium, which is situated on the shoulder of the peninsula, just at the bend of the neck as it were. The distance would be much greater if measured to Likinium, but in that case the line being drawn obliquely would incline too much to one side. Its breadth is variable, being 410 miles between the two seas, the lower and the upper, and the rivers Varus and Arcia. At about the middle and in the vicinity of the city of Rome, from the spot where the river Aeternus flows into the Atriatic Sea to the mouth of the Tiber, the distance is 136 miles, and a little less from Castrum Novum on the Atriatic Sea to Alcium on the Tuscan, but in no place does it exceed 200 miles in breadth. The circuit of the whole from the Varus to the Arcia is 3,059 miles. As to its distance from the countries that surround it, Austria and Liberna are in some places 100 miles from it, and the Pyrus and Illyricum 50. Africa is less than 200 as we are informed by Marcus Varro, Sardinia 120, Sicily one and a half, Corsica less than 80, and Issa 50. It extends into the two seas towards the southern parts of the heavens, or so to speak with more minute exactness, between the sixth hour and the first hour of the winter solstice. We will now describe its extent and its different cities, in doing which it is necessary to premise that we shall follow the arrangement of the late Emperor Augustus and adopt the division which he made of the whole of Italy into 11 districts, taking them however according to their order on the sea line, as is so hurry to detail it would not be possible otherwise to describe each city in juxtaposition with the others in its vicinity. As for the same reason in describing the interior, I shall follow the alphabetical order which has been adopted by that Emperor, pointing out the colonies of which he has made mention in his enumeration. Nor is it a very easy task to trace their situation and origin. For not to speak of others, the Engaonian Lugurians have had lands granted to them as many as thirty different times. To begin then, with the river Varus, we have the town of Nicaea, founded by the Missilians, the river Paolo, the Alps and the Alpine tribes distinguished by various names, but more especially the Capilate, Caminaleo, a town of the state of the Vediante, the port of Hercules Monicus, and the Lugurian coast. The more celebrated of the Lugurian tribes beyond the Alps are the Saluvii, the Deciates, and the Osubii. On this side of the Alps, the Veneni, the Vagieeni, who are derived from the Catorigues, the Statielli, the Bimbeili, the Magili, the Emburiates, the Cosmoniates, the Veliate, and the peoples whose towns we shall describe as lying near the adjoining coast. The river Rattuba, the town of Albia Intimaleum, the river Merula, the river Porquifera, the town of Genoa, the river Ferretore, the Portis Delphini, Tugulia Tegeista of the Tuguliii, and the river Makra, which is the boundary of Liguria. Extending behind all the before mentioned places are the Apennines, the most considerable of all the mountains of Italy, a chain which extends unbroken from the Alps to the Sicilian Sea. On the other side of the Apennines, towards the Padus, the richest river of Italy, the whole country is adorned with noble towns, Libarna, the colony of Dertona, Iria, Barderate, Industria, Polentia, Caria, surnamed Potentia, Foro Fubi, or Balentinum, Augusta, the Vaggieni, Alba Pompeia, Asta, and Aque Statellorum. This is the ninth region, according to the arrangement of Augustus. The coast of Liguria extends 211 miles between the rivers Varus and Makra. End of section 17.