 1815. The United States and Great Britain are at peace. The scene of frigate duels, blockading and privateering are now great highways between rich markets. Fared and nourished by an ever-expanding seaborn trade, a new America grows out of the western wilderness. The Navy will play an important role during this golden era, 45 years of expansion following the War of 1812. It will protect Americans away from home and promote peaceful trade abroad. The Navy will contribute to military science, giving the United States newer and more powerful weapons with which to defend the nation at home and abroad. Its operations during the wars in Florida, Mexico and California will help extend the American frontier along the Gulf and west to the Pacific Ocean. Naval diplomacy will further American interests abroad and open Japan to the world without resort to arms. In peace, as in war, America needed her Navy, slave trade, revolution. These were but a few of the problems facing the United States Navy after the War of 1812. To deal with threats to the American flag, the Navy organized six naval squadrons. One for the Mediterranean Sea, another to cover the West Indies, a third to patrol the West African coast, a squadron for the South Atlantic, one for the Eastern Pacific, and a squadron to protect American interests in the Far East, or as it was then called, East India. First, a squadron for the Mediterranean. Algiers, strongest of the Barbary powers, had used the War of 1812 as an excuse to pillage American shipping. But on March 2, 1815, just a matter of days after the peace treaty with Britain was ratified, Congress declared war against Algiers. On June 17, an American squadron under Commodore Stephen Decatur engaged the flagship of the Algeria Navy and battered it into submission. Peace negotiations opened 12 days later, ending the war. In the Caribbean, American shipping faced another serious threat, pirates. Between 1815 and 1823, mariners reported nearly 3,000 cases of piracy in the West Indies. To meet this threat, the Navy established the West India Squadron in 1822. The duty was tough and dangerous. But by 1829, the Navy's West India Squadron had made the Caribbean safe for American shipping. Another trouble spot was off the coast of Africa. Here in 1820, the Navy established a patrol to curb slavery. Although condemned, the slave trade was a profitable business. The Navy remained on the alert off the West African coast, taking slavers and freeing their African prisoners. In the decade after the War of 1812, Spain's colonial empire in America crumbled. While the American people watched the struggle of their neighbors to the south with sympathy, some European power is talked of supporting Spain. In his annual message to Congress on December 2, 1823, President James Monroe condemned European interference in Latin America. He declared, the American continents by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintained are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers. While Europe mulled over the Monroe Doctrine, two new American naval squadrons operated in trouble waters around Latin America. The Brazil Squadron kept a weather eye peeled for developments that might have affected American trade and policy in the South Atlantic. Off the west coasts of South and North America, the Pacific Squadron protected American interests in the Pacific Ocean. In the Oregon territory, the fur trade boomed. Another industry, whaling, brought scores of American ships to the Pacific and new responsibilities for the peacetime Navy. Other Americans fanned out over the Pacific, missionaries to Hawaii, Yankee merchants to take advantage of the rich China trade. By 1835, American trade was second only to Great Britain in the Pacific. But here too there was trouble. In Sumatra and China, pirates, turmoil. In 1835, the United States established the East India Squadron to protect and encourage American trade in the Far East. Commodore Lawrence Carney, flying his flag in the historic frigate constellation, commanded the East India Squadron which arrived off China in 1842. Carney's naval diplomacy enabled the United States to obtain trading rights in China equal to those granted to Great Britain. By the mid-1840s, the Navy had made much of the world safe for American commerce. In the Mediterranean, the West Indies, and off the coasts of Africa and South America, in the Pacific and Far East, the Navy pioneered trade protection and promotion. At home, the nation was assured of its Navy's protection with the establishment of the home squadron, a quickly available concentration of naval force on the East Coast. Now as canals, hard surface roads, and river boats made it easier for inland production to reach the coast, American merchants reached out confidently for new markets, assured of their Navy's worldwide support. And the growing republic benefited. Washington had seen many new faces since the British had burned the nation's capital in 1814. Men like James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, a naval minded New Englander, Andrew Jackson, the great general who told the American people, your Navy will not only protect your rich and flourishing commerce in distant seas, but it will enable you to reach and annoy the enemy and will give to defense its greatest efficiency by meeting danger at a distance from home. Jackson's successor was Martin Van Buren. When President Van Buren took office, the Navy stood on the threshold of momentous changes in ship construction and gun design. Except for refinements, ships and naval ordinance had not changed basically for centuries before 1840. Ships of the line, like the 120 gun Pennsylvania, were still symbols of naval power. Robert Fulton designed and built the twin hulled center wheel steam war vessel Demologus in 1815. The first steam driven warship ever constructed for any Navy. 22 years later, the Navy built the Fulton, 1837, the true beginning of the steam Navy. The Fulton's first skipper, Captain Matthew C. Perry, pioneered steam engineering and was instrumental in founding the engineer corps. His suggestions were used in the construction of the steam frigate Mississippi. This side wheeler was completed in 1842, but its exposed machinery was vulnerable to well-placed shot. The submerged screw propeller seemed to be the answer to this problem. Now the water itself would protect much of the warship's vital machinery. The first screw driven warship ever built, the Princeton, put to sea in 1844. Again, the United States had shown the way. By the time the Merrimack class screw frigates began operation in 1857, steam propulsion was established in the Navy. Revolutionary developments also took place in naval ordinance after 1840. Gun design had not changed much in the 250 years since the Spanish Armata. The solid shot smooth bore gun was still standard on warships. All this was to change. Solid shot gave way to explosive shells, and the first scientifically designed naval guns were ready for use at the Washington Navy Yard. Lieutenant John Dahlgren's experiment showed that the highest pressures were near the breach of the gun. Pressure then rapidly diminished as the projectile traveled along the bore. Dahlgren constructed a bottle shaped gun to conform to these pressure relationships. Improved in more powerful naval ordinance, forecast the end of the wooden warship. The iron clad was not far off. Meanwhile, the Navy played a leading role in furthering geographical knowledge. Six ships under Lieutenant Charles Wilkes left the United States in the summer of 1838, on a voyage of Pacific exploration lasting almost four years. The expedition surveyed the South Pacific to Australia, followed the Antarctic ice barrier nearly 1,000 miles, and proved that a great continent lay beyond this massive ice shelf. Increased knowledge of the sea brought on by such expeditions led to the establishment of the nautical almanac and hydrographic offices. Another result was the establishment in 1842 of the Naval Observatory under Lieutenant Matthew Fontaine Moray. His studies of the world's oceans and wind currents helped make navigation faster and safer. Moray, half-finder of the seas. At the same time, there were significant changes in naval administration. From 1815 to 1842, a board of three Navy commissioners assisted the Secretary of the Navy in administering the department. Then to meet the growing needs of the Navy, Congress established five bureaus, Navy yards and docks, construction, equipment and repairs, provisions and clothing, ordinance and hydrography, and of medicine and surgery. The Bureau of Medicine and Searchery grew out of the Navy's concern for the welfare of its sailors. Naval chaplains looked after the spiritual welfare of sailors on long overseas cruises. Chaplains also acted as school masters on board ship, but naval training was still pretty haphazard. The deficiency was met by a professional school for the Naval officer, founded at Fort Severn inapolis in 1845, through the efforts of George Bencroft, Secretary of the Navy. Commander Franklin Buchanan was the first superintendent of the Naval Academy. In the decade beginning 1835, the Navy faced troubles at home, first in the Florida Territory. Near Tampa, Seminole Indians massacred an Army detachment touching off the Seminole War. The war spread into southern Alabama and Georgia in 1836 with the revolt of the Creek Indians. To operate with the Army, almost the entire Marine Corps, under Colonel Commandant Henderson, proceeded to military outposts in Georgia and Alabama. The Marines fought successful campaigns against both Creek and Seminole's. A small fleet under Lieutenant Commander McLaughlin operated against the Seminole's in the Everglades until the war ended in 1842. The Navy's fleet of small sailing vessels, barges and canoes penetrated hundreds of miles into the swamps on the track of elusive Indians. No sooner were the Seminole's pacified in Florida than trouble flared in Texas. In 1836, this important part of Mexico revolted and established a republic. The United States annexed Texas in 1845. This caused Mexico to break off diplomatic relations with the United States. President Polk sent land and naval forces to protect American citizens and interests in Texas and Mexico. War broke out in May 1846. General Taylor's Army met the Mexicans in battle near the Rio Grande. While the Navy blockaded the Mexican coast and guarded the line of communication, Taylor's men marched toward Monterey. It was a tough campaign for these American infantrymen who had to fight dust and disease as well as the enemy. In 1847, plans changed. An advance on Mexico City from Vera Cruz instead of by way of Monterey. This call for a large-scale amphibious assault. Supported by naval gunboats and steamers under Commodore Conner, more than 10,000 troops were landed below the Mexican stronghold in March 1847. Vera Cruz was shelled, first by Captain Josiah Tatenow's gunboats. For sure, the Army needed more firepower. The Navy set up six heavy naval guns to pound the city. Naval gunners stood up against withering enemy fire. Vera Cruz fell on March 25th, and the Army and Marines moved on Mexico City. Naval forces now under Commodore Perry neutralized strong points along the coast while the Army pushed inland. The war was also fought in California where the Navy played a decisive role. In July 1846, Commodore Sloat put 250 sailors and Marines ashore to occupy Monterey, Mexican capital of California. Two days later, a naval force occupied San Francisco. Commodore Stockton, a relieved Sloat in command of the Pacific Squadron, then moved to take all of California with a spearhead of Marines, sailors from the fleet, and a battalion of California volunteers. On July 29th, his sailors and Marines captured San Diego. On August 4th, Santa Barbara. Two days later, San Pedro fell to the Navy. On August 13th, Marines took Los Angeles, but were driven back by the Mexicans after a siege of a week. This and another setback at San Pasquale on December 6th did not deter Stockton, who reorganized his forces to advance on Los Angeles from San Pedro. In January 1847, Stockton's force defeated the enemy at San Gabriel and La Mesa and reoccupied Los Angeles. Here, the Americans and Mexicans signed the Treaty of Coenga. The war was over in California. On the Gulf and Pacific coast of Mexico, the war continued until early 1848. In the Pacific, naval forces captured Guaymas, Macedlan, and San Blas and tightened the naval blockade of Mexico. Marines fought to the halls of Montezuma. Mexico capitulated, and the western border of the United States touched the Pacific. In Northern California, gold was discovered, and the race was on, most of the 49ers making the trip by sea. Across the waters that washed California shores was the Orient, Japan. A hermit, Japan. The Navy helped open Japan to the world. First, Commodore Biddle in 1846. He got as far as Tokyo Bay. Commodore James Glynn in the Sloup of War Preble arrived at Nagasaki three years later and obtained the release of a group of American castaways held there. In July 1853, Japanese fishermen on the shores of Tokyo Bay sighted Commodore Matthew C. Perry's black ships. Perry came prepared. He had force to use, if necessary, the steam warships Mississippi and Susquehanna, supported by other ships. But Perry also came armed with knowledge. His experts had studied Japan and Japanese customs. Intelligent diplomacy was Perry's main weapon. He made it clear from the beginning he would deal only with the highest appointed Japanese officials. On July 14, 1853, Perry's honor guard of some 400 sailors and Marines marched to a pavilion on the beach at Kurihama. With great pomp and display, Perry presented a letter from President Fillmore requesting friendly relations with Japan. The Japanese were impressed. Perry then left, promising to return for an answer the following year. By the time Perry's squadron returned in February 1854, the Japanese had decided to negotiate with the American commander. While American and Japanese officials framed the treaty, Perry's men entertained the curious Japanese officials with a naval side show. Marines showed off their marksmanship. Sailors demonstrated the telegraph. And engineers set up a model railroad to give Kimono-Klad dignitaries their first train ride. America and Japan concluded a treaty. It opened two ports to American trade. It guaranteed protection to shipwrecked American seamen. Naval diplomacy had once again paid off. Japan was open to the world. At the midpoint of the 19th century, the Navy fanned out over the globe on many exploring and surveying expeditions. To the river Jordan and the Dead Sea in the Holy Land, where camels pulled small boats across the desert plains. To the Arctic and into the jungles of Panama and West Africa. Naval ships surveyed the Atlantic for the first trans-oceanic cable and on extensive voyages again explored the Pacific, this time from Australia to the Arctic Ocean. As the clouds of civil war gathered in 1860, Americans could look back with pride on what their Navy had accomplished during this golden era. First of all, the Navy protected American citizens and promoted trade throughout the world. New markets were opened for American commerce and assurance given that the American flag would be respected wherever it was flown. Naval protection and promotion of trade helped boost the American merchant marine to a total of 2.5 million tons by the year 1860. Secondly, the Navy made important contributions in exploration, oceanography, steam engineering, and ordinance. A third accomplishment was the Navy's support of American military operations in Florida, Mexico, and California. These operations, particularly the Mexican War, added vast areas to the United States. In 1860, the nation reached from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Finally, naval officers in their role as diplomats and representatives of the American people abroad achieved results that strengthened the United States position among the nations. The Navy had demonstrated the vital role it must always play in peace as well as in war.