 Let's take a concrete example from real life. Jedi mind tricks. So Obi-Wan comes along and says, these aren't the droids you're looking for. And what does the stormtrooper do? He goes away. Now, is that a nudge? No, it's a form of manipulation. So, okay, but how do you draw the metaphysical categories? It seems like a nudge that just happens to work all the time. Okay, I'll give you a quick and dirty way of getting at that. Many social scientists make a distinction between system one, which is the intuitive, rapid processing of the brain, which sees maybe a large dog and thinks, oh my gosh, I'm going to get bitten, or feels turbulence in a plane and says we're all going to die. And system two, the more deliberative system, which says rightly upon seeing a large dog, this might be my best friend, and the likelihood of being bitten is super low. And if the plane starts shaking, system two in the brain thinks, just plain shake and they hardly ever crash. Manipulation, we can say, as a first approximation, is when the agent is appealing to system one and not appealing to people's deliberative faculties. When Obi-Wan says, and we have to watch it in very slow motion to see exactly what's happening, but when Obi-Wan says these are not the droids you're looking for, Obi-Wan is not appealing to the deliberative faculties of the stormtrooper. A nudge. Let's just say we follow David Kuhn, how much do people ever deliberate? So when I do things when I'm driving, I can end up in places I don't even recall having driven. What I choose to eat, how much I eat, it seems 98% of my life isn't deliberated. So does that really shrink the realm of nudge then? No, because a nudge can be a system one nudge or a system two nudge. And whether, okay, so if it's a system two nudge, it's by definition not a form of manipulation. So if there's a reminder or a warning or a fuel economy label that tells you how much the car is going to cost to operate, then there's no risk of manipulation. If people are given a graphic warning that, let's say, shows a smoker who has lung cancer, then there's a discussion to be had about whether it's manipulation. I think this is a way into the topic of manipulation. Probably we have to say something like, if one person is appealing to another in a way that wholly bypasses deliberative capacities, there's at least a risk of manipulation. It might be justified, all things considered. The nudges that seem to me to be appropriate in a democratic society are either nudges that appeal to people's reflective or deliberative capacities, or that don't exploit or inflame solely people's non-deliberative capacities. If you're doing that, then you owe them some stuff, one of which is publicity is about what you're doing. So I'm for a graphic warnings for cigarettes. That was preceded by a public comment period, completely transparent. There's evidence that when there are graphic warnings for smokers, smokers actually know better, not worse, about the actual risks of smoking. So it gets kind of complicated, but the simple bottom line is Obi-Wan Kenobi is a great hero of the galaxy. Long time ago, far, far away. Still a great hero. That moment was an act of manipulation.