 Natural and man-made disasters often create dangerous conditions such as collapsed structures and water hazards. Victims become trapped within these confines. How does the Special Rescue Emergency Responders safely and effectively operate at these incidents? Next on E-Net. I'm Rich Adams. I guess that little opening told you this is a special show. It's our hundredth show and we want to welcome you to today's Emergency Education Network conference. It's called Safety Considerations for Special Rescue Situations. Today we have convened a team of national experts to provide you with timely, accurate information about how to safely respond to one of the most dangerous types of operation you might ever face, and that's a special rescue situation. On September 2, 1992, the U.S. Fire Administration conducted another E-Net video conference called Urban Disaster Search and Rescue, the initial response strategies. Urban Search and Rescue is also known as Structural Collapse Rescue. In that 1992 video conference, we discussed how to respond to structural collapse incidents and included critical safety issues. Today's program will not only look at structural collapse rescue safety, but also will discuss a wide range of critical safety issues of trench rescue, confined space rescue, rope and high-angle rescue, water rescue, and agricultural or machinery rescue. Now all of these special rescue operations are often referred to as technical rescue. Today's program will also take a look at the National Urban Search and Rescue Response System. The highlights of this system are the Urban Search and Rescue Task Forces. These task forces are specially qualified and equipped heavy rescue teams that can be called upon to respond to structural collapse and other large-scale emergencies involving special rescue operations. So today we'll explain how these task forces function and how your department can request their assistance. The United States Fire Administration is committed to increasing emergency responder safety in the field of special rescue operations. These E-Net broadcast are but two examples of this commitment. Let me take a few minutes to tell you about some other USFA projects aimed at emergency responder safety, your safety. The U.S. Fire Administration is working to develop performance criteria for protective clothing for these intensely dangerous special operations. USFA has performed in-depth investigations of past structural collapse incidents and they've developed reports on these incidents which are available from USFA at no cost. Additionally, USFA is currently developing other technical rescue safety programs designed to assist departments to safely respond to these types of special rescue emergencies. USFA is looking to perform in-depth investigations of incidents involving technical rescue operations and to develop reports on these incidents as well as a comprehensive assessment of the equipment and the technology used in technical rescue operations. USFA is also looking to produce a technical rescue program development manual. That manual is designed to explain how to develop and enhance technical rescue capability at the local level. The National Fire Academy is finishing the development of a Rescue Systems 1 which deals with the fundamentals of response to and safe operations at structural collapse incidents. The U.S. Fire Administration serves as an active participant in the National Urban Search and Rescue Response System as well as the National Fire Protection Association's Subcommittee on Standards on Search and Rescue for Structural Collapse Incidents. That's NFPA Standard 1470. The USFA also works to provide information to all 34,000 American Fire and Emergency Services organization in the area of technical rescue. The USFA will continue its commitment to this important area. The U.S. Fire Administration is also performing related projects in the rescue field. These include the development of a vehicle extrication safety manual and performing research into new technologies and vehicle extrication equipment. Now although not specifically related to technical rescue, the USFA is developing a guide to funding alternatives for fire and emergency medical services departments. This guide will assist local emergency services in identifying and implementing traditional and non-traditional methods of raising money. This guide could be used to assist local jurisdictions in financing projects to enhance technical rescue operations capabilities. Now, for further information about the United States Fire Administration's rescue programs, here is the person to contact. William Troup, U.S. Fire Administration Office of Firefighter Health and Safety, and here's the telephone number 301-447-1231. Now for information on the Federal Emergency Management Agency's Urban Search and Rescue Programs including the National Urban Search and Rescue Response System and the Urban Search and Rescue Task Forces, please contact Kimberly Vasconas at the Federal Emergency Management Agency, State and Local Program Support Directorate, the Emergency Response Division, and here's that phone number in Washington, D.C., 202-646-4335. And finally, for information on the educational programs available from the National Fire Academy right to the Office of Admissions at the National Fire Academy, at the National Emergency Training Center in Emmitsburg, Maryland, and the zip code is 21727. And now Mr. Edward Wall, the Deputy Administrator of the United States Fire Administration, joins us to share his perspective on safety considerations for special rescue situations. Ed. Federal Emergency Management Agency and the U.S. Fire Administration, I'd like to welcome you to today's program. This broadcast marks a very special occasion, the 100th broadcast of Enet. It's hard to believe we've come so far from that first show in Alaska in 1981. Working with the Children's Television Workshop, USFA presented training for caregivers of preschool children. Slowly but surely, Enet grew and expanded its broadcast and its audiences. For the past several years, Enet has produced over 14 shows a year with an audience of over 100,000 for each viewing. Thanks to the success of those early broadcasts, we're here today to celebrate the 100th Enet broadcast. On behalf of FEMA and the United States Fire Administration, we would like to bring together two very important people who are the early pioneers in the Enet work, Tim Butters and Clay Hollister. Good morning, gentlemen. Ed. Great to see you. Ed. See you. These two gentlemen were sort of the pioneers in this field, and both have been very supportive of the program up to this very moment, and we have a little surprise for you in that we didn't drag you out here today just to show how pretty you are on TV. Tim Butters, an appreciation for the work and the recognition you've given Enet. We present this award from the Federal Emergency Management Agency and the Fire Administration. Thank you very much. Congratulations, Tim. Thanks, Ed. Clay, we'd be very proud of the work you've done and not only the work you did in the past, but the support you've given Enet in your new job and MP, and we appreciate all of that work. Very nice. Gentlemen, it's been a pleasure working with both of you. And you know, Clay, did you think that 10 years ago, 10 years ago today, we were in a little studio in Denver, Colorado doing the very first Enet show the way Enet is today. Did you ever think it was going to be like this? Yeah, I did, actually. I'll tell you why. Two reasons. One is because the fire service out there in the emergency management community was very receptive to the technology. They absolutely glommed on to it in a minute, and the other reason was we had some good management within the agency, within the fire administration then, and within FEMA to energize it, like Ed and Tim particularly, and yeah, I thought it would go, and it did. Now, Tim, you know, you and I have worked together, you're in the fire service as well as in this field. How do you think the fire service has felt about this? We're using just the state of the art here, and it seems to work. Yeah, I mean, it's really gratifying to be part of something that has been so successful, you know, in the federal government. Sometimes you work on a project, and you leave, and it sometimes goes away, but being on the other side of the camera now with the fire service in the field, I hear a lot of good things about the program. People like it, and it's really satisfying. It's good to be part of something that's working out there, and it provides some valuable information and training to the troops, and that makes me feel real good. I know it's been, and I want to say to all of you, it's been a real privilege to work with all of you on this, you know, being in the news media for so long. You deal so much with the bad things and with the negatives, and to have worked on almost all of these 100 shows, and to have had 100 chances to do something that maybe one little bit of information will help somebody do the job better, save a life, or be better in their profession of saving lives and property is just a very rewarding thing. And I think you two guys have really put it together. Ed, with your support and leadership throughout the time, and it's really great. Hope we can do 100 more, and we'll be back here and do it again. That's great. It's a federal success story. It is really super. Thanks very much. Ed, we'll let you get on with your presentation, gentlemen. Thanks very much. Thank you. Thank you. That was a pleasant and unexpected moment. And now back to today's program. Through this video conference, a team of national experts will provide you with information about how to safely respond to special rescue situations, such as structural collapse, trench rescues, confined space rescues, rope and high-angle rescues, water and agricultural or machinery rescues. Special rescue operations are very dangerous. In the last few years, seven firefighters have died in confined spaces. Five have died performing water rescue, and over 25 have been killed as a result of structural collapse. The fire administration wants you to know how to safely respond to special rescue incidences from structural collapse to confined spaces. I hope this video conference will help you, the fire and emergency service responder, understand the complexities and the dangers of operating at special rescue instances. Thank you for your participation in this E-Net video conference and for your interest in emergency responder health and safety. Ed, thank you very much. And as Ed Well just pointed out, of the special rescue situations, structural collapses have claimed the largest number of lives in recent years. Here to talk about that is Lieutenant Tom Carr of the Montgomery County Maryland Department of Fire and Rescue Services. Tom, we've worked together for an awfully long time. It's good to have you here. And let's hear more about structural collapse situations. Thank you, Rich. Structural collapse can occur in any community, large or small, at any time as a result of many mechanisms. The threat of earthquake-causing structural collapse is great in some areas of the country, while the potential for weather-related collapse is likely in others. Hurricanes, tornadoes, and high wind situations contribute to the occurrence of weather-related collapse. Other situations which may cause structural collapse to occur include failure of structures under construction, failure as a result of structural modification, or lack of proper maintenance, explosions such as a natural gas failure, or collapse secondary to weakening caused by fire. Also recently, we've been reminded of the increasing structural collapse potential due to terrorist acts. Rescue personnel responding to structural collapse incidents face many potential hazards. Many hazards will be obvious, while others require rescuers to have a base knowledge of the hazard potential and to anticipate concerns. The emotional aspects of the incident may have an impact on rescuers as they arrive at a structural in their community which has failed. Even arriving on the scene of the collapse of your local elementary school or nursing home, what will you see? What goes through your mind in those first few seconds as you begin to realize the magnitude of the situation? Safety is of the utmost importance. You must always think of the rescuers and the safety of victims who are involved in the collapse. It is imperative that your actions don't cause additional failure of the structure or further injury of those involved. We will talk about the types of hazards that you as a rescuer may come across. Hazard stabilization or removal procedures will be discussed as well as the proper rescuer safety equipment and other safety considerations. In your community, structural collapse safety should start with your department's pre-planning, knowledge of the types of construction, the type of occupancy, and hazards which may exist in the normal environment such as hazardous materials should be pre-identified. As with any large scale or complex incident, a safety officer should be assigned as quickly as possible. Additionally, all personnel approaching a collapse structure should be familiar with the structural collapse safety concerns. As they approach the structure, each rescuer should mentally perform a safety evaluation noting specific areas of concern. The safety evaluation should be concerned with six general categories, structural instability, overhead hazards, surface hazards, below grade hazards, damaged utilities, and hazardous materials. We must assume that structural instability has occurred as a result of the initial failure or collapse of the building. The potential is great for a secondary collapse as the result of an earthquake aftershock or other movement of the collapsed materials. Rescuers should look for signs of weakened walls, floors, roofs, columns, and beams. These members may no longer be able to support the remaining structure. Freestanding walls and damaged or loose chimneys can easily fall as a result of lost or damaged structural support, wind load, or aftershocks. In addition to sudden secondary collapse concerns, settlement, vibration, or shifting of debris can cause voids to collapse. Personnel evaluating the potential entry into a structure to make a rescue must have an understanding of and the ability to apply structural shoring systems in order to protect themselves and the victims from additional collapse. All exposed structures must also be assessed. The failure of an adjacent structure can endanger personnel working nearby. In many cases, it is difficult to evaluate the structural stability of a building rescuers should develop a relationship with local structural engineers who would be available to assist in structural assessment in emergency situations. Rescuers performing operations at the collapse site must evaluate the scene for overhead hazards that may fall and strike rescuers or victims. Identified hazards must be removed or stabilized prior to safe entry into the affected area. Concerns include loose debris and building components suspended overhead, sections of concrete hanging from attached reinforcing bars, or dislodged bricks or a block precariously perched on a broken wall assembly. Overhead hazards also may pose an electrocution danger due to damaged electrical wires hanging low or heavily tensioned and ready to fail. On a construction site, preexisting scaffolding or stacked building supplies are common overhead hazards. Brick, block, drywall, lumber, or steel building components may become unstable overhead hazards after a collapse. During rescue operations, heavy equipment may be utilized to lift or stabilize building components. The sudden failure of a rigging system, such as a sling chain or cable or overloading of the lifting system may cause the sudden release of building components. This may also lead to catastrophic failure of the remaining structure. In order to maintain their safety, rescue personnel must always be aware of the overall rescue plan. If heavy equipment is to be used, personnel should be removed from the area and should be prepared for the possibility of additional collapse. Heavy equipment must always be used with extreme care when utilized in proximity to known victims. Due to a large amount of debris, a structural collapse will require extreme caution while walking and operations on the site. Identified hazards should be removed or marked as they are identified to lessen the hazard potential for others. A building collapse site will be full of sharp objects. Depending on the structure's construction, you will find broken glass, nails, wood, splinters, jagged metal, exposed reinforcing bars, and rough masonry edges. Footing may be difficult as a result of debris as well as spilled fluids and pools of water and sewage. Ground depressions, which can be difficult to identify because they are covered, add to the difficult and hazardous footing. Rescuers must be aware of the potential for downed or exposed electrical wires. In addition to causing a trip hazard, these wires may still be energized. Fallen trees may cause a number of problems. They may block access to the rescue site. They may be sitting in an unstable position on the structure, which may cause additional structural failure or the movement of the tree. Open manholes or other ground level openings as a result of the collapse may present a serious hazard to rescuers. Heavy equipment brought to the site to assist with the rescue operations needs to be carefully monitored. Due to its extreme weight in a potentially unstable area, its movement must be carefully planned to minimize impact on the operation. Vibration caused by heavy equipment, including fire and rescue apparatus, may lead to secondary collapse. Apparatus should be staged in a position to maximize its use but to minimize its impact on the site. Below-grade hazards occur in basements, parking garages, or other void spaces. Confined space hazards and procedures must be considered when entering these spaces. The atmosphere must be monitored for deficient or enriched oxygen situations, as well as the accumulation of other atmospheric hazards. Ventilation should be considered prior to entry in these spaces. Flooding from broken water or sewage pipes may occur and impede access to below-grade spaces. The failure of natural gas lines, steam ducts, or chemical lines will increase the hazard in these spaces. Limited access and egress add to the seriousness of a fall in this environment. Personnel should have appropriate safety gear in place in case of such a fall. Utilities will be disrupted as a result of structural collapse. Rescuers must be careful to identify the existing utilities in a structure prior to entry. Additionally, the current status of the utilities should be determined and representatives of the appropriate agencies should be summoned to the site. Hazards include electrocution as a result of disrupted electrical wiring, explosion hazards from broken natural gas and or heating fuel lines, disrupted steam lines which can cause burns to rescuers. Sewage from broken sewer lines can release toxic gases such as hydrogen sulfide or methane, as well as exposed rescuers to biological hazards. The type of occupancy and its normal contents will help in identifying the potential hazardous materials which may be released during a collapse. Remember, hazardous materials can pose a problem at residential occupancies as well as commercial establishments. A residential kitchen or garage may create a significant hazard to rescuers when products have been disturbed. Additionally, think about the hazard potential in the local hardware store, paint store, grocery store, pool company, sports supply store, hospital or school, not to mention the local chemical supply company, a propane storage facility or a biological research facility. Remember, when the structure collapses, products which are not meant to be mixed together in an uncontrolled environment may create an extremely hazardous situation which may be difficult to identify. It is important for rescuers to recognize that a collapsed structure is more susceptible to fire after the collapse than it was before. The failure of built-in suppression systems, a lack of water, disrupted utilities and splintered flammable building materials increase the fire potential. Smoke or fire may require rescuers to wear full firefighting protective gear during the operation. Fire may have caused the collapse or it could be secondary to the collapse. Vibrations can cause secondary collapse especially when the structure is already unstable. Remember, the source may not even be on the site. Sources to consider include rail traffic such as train and subway, vehicle traffic, air traffic especially near an airport or helicopter traffic over the site, heavy construction equipment and even responding fire and rescue apparatus. Dust in particulate matter from building debris is always a problem. The potential for asbestos exposure in many situations will be great. At a minimum, appropriate breathing protection such as particulate mass will be required. The use of tools in confined spaces requires special consideration. Remember that tools which are used in an open environment create a new set of safety concerns in confined areas. Obviously, atmospheric and explosive conditions are a concern when operating rescue equipment in a collapsed structure, but additionally special care must be taken operating equipment in cramped quarters. Rescuers must be aware of the collapse hazard created as equipment is used to free the victim. As debris and structural members are removed it will be necessary to put a shoring system in place. Noise hazards will be created when using equipment and working around heavy equipment on a collapsed site. Personnel must be properly prepared with hearing protection. The scene must be secured from the onset to assure an organized and safe rescue effort. While spontaneous rescuers are greatly appreciated when they operate through the existing incident management structure, they may become a safety hazard to themselves, the victim, and other rescuers if they are not organized and functioning within the incident structure. Structural collapse response is a multidisciplinary multi-agency response. Responding personnel will arrive with a wide range of protective gear. The required protective gear for the work environment will be determined to some extent by the existing conditions. At a minimum, the area will be strewn with debris, broken glass, protruding nails, jagged metal, and exposed reinforcing bars. Trip and fall hazards dust and noise as well as puncture hazards will be prevalent. The following should be considered the minimum protective equipment acceptable to work on a collapsed structure site. Helmet or hard hat, leather work gloves, safety eyewear, no helmet shields, sunglasses, or regular eyeglasses, safety work shoes that protect against punctures from sharp objects and crushed toes from falling debris or dropped tools. Heavy work clothing or coveralls to provide abrasion protection must include full arm and full leg protection. Dust mass, which will provide respiratory protection from dust in particulate matter, you should have extra mass available on site due to the significant respiratory exposure potential. Hearing protection to protect the wearer from loud noises generated by rescuers' power tools and heavy equipment construction. Knee protection, such as industrial type knee pads which will help protect the knees of rescuers while crawling in void spaces. Additionally, any personnel who enter the structure should carry a personal light and some type of established communication system. Of course, if smoke or fire are present, firefighters will need full protective gear, including self-contained breathing apparatus. Use of this gear will normally be limited to smoke and fire situations because it is generally too bulky to allow effective movement within a collapsed structure. We have established that a safety officer should be assigned as soon as possible after arrival on the scene. The safety officer helps assure a safe work environment. Safety officers should be assigned to each work unit or rescue team. They should position themselves so they can oversee the work site to identify potential hazards or changing conditions or unsafe work actions. Safety officers cannot be involved in the hands on rescue operation as this will impede their ability to maintain a safe work environment. Safety officers should use a safety checklist to assure that they are covering all safety aspects of the incident. The checklist should allow for repeated assessment of the situation, monitoring of atmospheric conditions and personnel accountability. This will also allow the monitoring of personnel work times and appropriate rotation of crews during prolonged operations. The entire crew should not be replaced at the same time. Some overlap of crew should be allowed to assure continuity of the operation from one crew to the next. Personnel should work and stay together at all times on a collapsed incident scene. The buddy system should be established as personnel arrive on the scene and practice throughout the incident. In place, effective communications are an absolute necessity at a structural collapse site. Ideally, each crew member should have a portable radio to maintain communications with the appropriate sector officer. Communications must be maintained through voice, touch or site. Because a structural collapse incident is a multidisciplinary, multi-agency response, it is imperative that responding personnel who are not familiar with the emergency incident management system are briefed regarding the appropriate communications and accountability system prior to entering the work site. Because the potential for secondary collapse is great, a warning system must be utilized, which is immediately recognized by all personnel on the site. The FEMA Urban Search and Rescue Task Force program has established a signaling system for evacuating rescuers in the event of an unsafe condition. The system utilizes on-site air horns such as those found on trucks, fire apparatus and other vehicles. Additionally effective, handheld CO2 boat air horns are compact enough to fit in a rescuer's pocket. One long, three second blast indicates cease operations, all quiet. Three short blasts, one second each, indicates evacuate the area. One long, three second blast and one short, one second blast indicates resume operations. Rescuers must pre-plan escape procedures in the event of a problem. A secondary or alternate escape route should be pre-planned in the event the primary means of egress is blocked. In the event personnel do become trapped, they should immediately attempt to establish communications with other team members, the sector officer, incident commander or anyone outside of the structure to notify them of their situation. Operations at collapsed structure incidents can be very taxing on all involved. Safety officers must be aware of the potential for critical incident stress and how it will affect rescue workers. Team members must also be aware that prolonged rescue operations, fatigue, the site of multiple fatalities and injuries and the frustration of wanting to do more can create potentially debilitating stress levels in rescue workers. In order to minimize the effects of critical incident stress and the potential for injury to rescuers, crews should be rotated on a regular basis to a rehabilitation area. This is especially important as the duration of the incident increases. The rehab area should be removed from the hot zone. The area should be away from the noise and the site of the work area. The rehab area should provide shelter from the weather, an opportunity for sleep arrest, food and drink, spare clothing and professional personnel familiar with critical incident stress should be available for rescue personnel to talk to if appropriate. A structural collapse incident will be one of the most complex incidents any rescue is ever involved in. In order to assure that it is a safe and effective operation, personnel must be aware of the potential safety concerns and how they can most effectively deal with them. A safety conscious rescue team will have a positive effect on the incident outcome. Rich? Tom, no matter how complicated the incident at the bottom line seems to be though that each individual rescuer has a large responsibility for his or her own personal safety through awareness and making sure that they're trained before they get involved. Absolutely. That's where it starts. It has to start there. Good. We'll talk more about that as we get on. I'm sure we're going to have some questions. Thanks a lot, Tom. All right. Now our next guest is battalion chief Chase Sargent of the Virginia Beach Fire Department. Chase is here to tell us about the important aspects of something else we see a lot around here, particularly on the east coast with soft ground trench and below terrain rescues. Yes, sir. Chase, good to see you. Thanks. The need to protect the lives of citizens, firefighters and rescue personnel at the scene of special operations instance has taken on new importance. While fire and rescue personnel may provide traditional services such as fire suppression and EMS operations, the need to train and equip specialty teams such as technical rescue teams is becoming more and more evident in an accepted way to provide a standard of care for victims trapped or injured in a variety of special situations. The actions and decision making processes implemented by the first arriving companies at the scene of either a confined space emergency or trench collapse operation are critical in assuring a safe operation. Proper decision making by the first arriving personnel will not only save their lives but increase the victim survival profile and increase the efficiency of the operation. In general, technical rescue operations can go sour for one or more of the following reasons, commonly referred to in Virginia Beach as the failure acronym. Failure to understand or underestimating the environment. Failure to consider additional medical implications, inadequate rescue skills, a lack of teamwork or experience, underestimating the logistical needs of the operation, and rescue versus recovery mode not considered an equipment not mastered. Each of these items can cause the operation to fail and can cost the emergency response personnel or the victim their lives. Let's begin by discussing some very specific safety considerations for two common types of technical rescue operations. Confined space entry and rescue and trench and excavation collapses. Over the next 20 minutes, I'd like to provide you with information about these types of incidents that will enable you as an emergency responder to accomplish the following. Understand the difference between a rescue and a recovery. Be able to make a proper risk benefit analysis. Understand and be able to identify the hazards associated with both trench collapses and confined spaces. Understand which hazards can be controlled and which should be left alone. Understand the physical and environmental factors associated with these types of operations. Discuss some basic myths and facts about these types of events. Recognize the limitations of standard breathing apparatus and the benefits of supply there breathing apparatus for use during confined space operations. Understand what role OSHA and other organizations play in the regulation of confined spaces and trenches. Understand where to locate resources locally to assist in these operations. Understand how to make a proper size up of the incidents and how to base your decision making on the information you gather. Be able to define a confined space in a trench and describe the proper personal protective ensembles appropriate for these types of operations. Now let's talk specifically about confined space rescue. From 1990 until the end of 1992 112 personnel were killed or injured in confined space accidents. Incredibly over 60% of those fatalities are would be rescuers. That includes emergency response personnel, coworkers and others who have attempted to rescue without the proper training and equipment. These statistics provide us with a firm basis of information from which we can draw several conclusions. First, most confined space emergencies escalate into multiple victim incidents quickly with a 60% chance that at least one of those victims was not the original entrance. Second, emergency response personnel will never face a more dangerous or life threatening operation than a confined space emergency. And third, OSHA, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, identifies three types of confined spaces. However, for emergency response we will define a confined space as any space which has a limited means of egress, is not intended for continual employee occupancy, may have the potential for an oxygen deficient or hazardous atmosphere and has the potential for engulfment. Examples of confined space may be but are not limited to the following types of areas. Tunnels, sewers or manholes, ships, tanks, process vessels, storm drains, cofferdams, reaction vessels, trenches and excavations. OSHA is responsible for the regulation of work in confined spaces. While there are seven different confined space standards for everything from shipbuilding to agriculture, the most widely used standard is the new 29 CFR 1910-146, permit required confined spaces for general industry. This standard outlines the necessary actions for entry into general industry confined spaces. While the standard itself is not designed for emergency response, it provides an excellent tool for use in developing a program. A department must assess its capability to function safely and effectively at the scene of a confined space entry and rescue operation. This planning and evaluation process should be an honest look at the following questions. Does the authority having jurisdiction have a competent, trained and equipped rescue team? Does the department have a survival level training program in place? This survival level training should include the following for the entire department. Recognition of a confined space. Hazards that exist in a confined space. Risk benefit analysis. Use and location of technical rescue teams. Proper size-up and decision-making processes when confronted as a first responder at a confined space. And actions the first responder should take and when to stop. Next, does the department have the proper equipment to conduct these operations, including but not limited to proper personal protective equipment, supplied air-breathing apparatus, or SEBA, victim removal and packaging equipment, approved rope, harnesses and hardware, atmospheric monitors, ventilation equipment, explosion-proof lighting systems, adequate communications equipment, supply systems, manifolds, carts, or box systems for the SEBA lockout, tagout, blankout and blinding equipment, a personal accountability system, and a functional instant management system. And does your department have a standard operating procedure for confined space entry and rescue operations? This evaluation will enable the department to make a rational decision on how ready they are for these types of operations. Failure of any part of this system could result in the inability to safely and effectively conduct these operations. Since it is beyond the scope of this presentation to actually teach confined space entry and rescue operations, the most important thing is to be capable of making a proper size-up, which includes evaluating hazards, controlling those hazards, and making rational, safe decisions based on your size-up. In order to perform a proper approach assessment, the first responder must understand what hazards exist in confined spaces. Let's take a moment to identify some common hazards that result in injuries or fatalities. The hazards of greatest concern to the emergency responder are those that are considered immediately dangerous to life and health, or IDLH. The term IDLH refers to any condition posing one or more of the following threats. An immediate or delayed threat to life, a threat that would cause irreversible adverse health effects, a threat that would interfere with an individual's ability to escape unaided from a permit confined space, a major IDLH hazards, which response personnel may encounter when they enter a workaround confined spaces are atmospheric hazards, thermal or chemical burns, mechanical force hazards, and engulfment in liquids or finely divided solid particles. The most common hazards are those associated with atmospheric. Rescue personnel seem to think that just because they cannot see it or smell it, that it's not present. Over 90% of all employee injuries or deaths were as a result of hazardous atmospheres. Hazardous atmospheres may be caused by one or more of the following. A flammable gas, vapor, or mist in excess of 10% of its lower flammable limit. An airborne combustible dust at a concentration that meets or exceeds its lower flammable limit. This can be approximated by a condition that obscures vision at a distance of 5 feet or less, an atmospheric oxygen concentration below 19.5 or above 23.5, or any atmosphere that exposes a rescuer to toxic contaminants above the permissible exposure limits, and any other condition that is considered IDLH. You should be getting the feeling that these may be silent killers. After all, perhaps the identification of these atmospheres is much more involved than simply looking and smelling. If you've decided that sophisticated monitors should be involved, you have just made a decision that has saved your and your crew's life. Congratulations. Aside from the areas listed, the following hazards pose a potential threat if not identified early in the operation. Asphyxiating atmospheres, the leading cause of atmospheric deaths. Flammable atmospheres, the potential for explosion or fire in the space or at the point of entry. Toxic atmospheres, this causes death immediately or leads to long-term health problems. Burns, this occurs either from an explosion, contact with a hot object in a space, or chemical exposure. Mechanical hazards, this occurs when rescue personnel are caught in mechanical or machinery parts such as augers, grinders, belts, or other devices which may crush or dismember the rescuer. Engulfment hazards, this occurs when the rescuer is immersed in liquid or solid storage products that may be released into the space or which may already be there. And stress hazards, this occurs simply from functioning in a tight, hot, difficult environment resulting in medical stress. It is interesting to note that the most recent statistics indicate that all stress-related incidents were fatalities. Now that we've talked about hazards, let's talk about incorporating them into the size-up. If you can recognize these hazards or understand that they exist, you have gone a long way to successfully sizing up a confined space entry problem and keeping yourself and your crew alive. Once you have identified the hazards, you must gather the following information to either begin your tactical and strategical decision making or to provide the information to specialty team personnel upon arrival. Consider the following during your approach assessment. What is the main problem? Is this an actual entry or a person caught in some type of mechanical device? Identify what the main rescue problem is going to be. What type of space is this? Is this a product storage area or is this an inert or gas-free area? What is the space used for? Is the space currently in use? Are there product storage hazards? Is there a viscous or heated material? If a product is stored there, is it present or is there residue from the product? How many victims are trapped or lost? How many personnel are unaccounted for? And where were they last seen? What are the ingress and egress points? Where and how can the space be entered? And how many and where are the entrances? Where are the entrances above ground or below grade? What hazards did you identify and how can you control them? Remember, atmospheric, chemical, mechanical, thermal, height, or stored energy. Once you have done these preliminaries, you can make the general area safe by establishing a perimeter and taping it off, establishing general area ventilation if necessary, assigning ingress and egress points, eliminating all potential or actual sources of ignition. If possible, you may make the rescue area safe by locking out, tagging out, and blanking out, performing atmospheric monitoring, ventilating the space with positive pressure, gathering maps or diagrams of the space. At this point, make a rational decision on whether this is a rescue or recovery and base your entire operation on that decision until additional information gathering indicates otherwise. Once you have finished with an approach assessment and made your decision on what type of tactical operation you will undertake, make a resource assessment. Do you have trained personnel and equipment to undertake this operation? If not, stop and wait for the proper resources. I would like to finish the confined space discussion with a quick look at the use and selection of breathing apparatus used during confined space entry and rescue operations. Remember, standard SCBA was made for structural firefighting, not for entry into confined spaces. Let's look at some of the hazards associated with the use of standard breathing apparatus as opposed to the supplied air breathing apparatus. Consider the following facts about the use of standard SCBA for entry into a confined space. A standard breathing apparatus is not designed to be removed from the user's back during use. The loss of the bottle in a space may result in the loss of the mask leaving the rescuer without respiratory protection. The air supply is limited and calculations cannot be made safely to decide how long your air supply will last. Movement in the space is greatly decreased and entrapment is possible due to the size of the device. At least one firefighter fatality and many injuries have resulted from the use of standard breathing apparatus in confined space. In fact, the OSHA standard 1910-146 specifically cites that Maryland employers and firefighters had this unfortunate experience resulting in fatalities. The following should be used as a guideline when making a decision on the use of standard breathing apparatus when entering a confined space. First, never enter a confined space with a standard SCBA if it must be removed either to enter or exit the space or remove to work or move in the space. Never allow entry of more than 25 to 30 feet in the space with a standard SCBA for recon or quick recovery. It is simply impossible to provide all the information necessary to adequately cover confined space operations in this short timeframe. This information is not designed to make you a rescue team but is intended to keep you alive to allow you to make rational, safe decisions as a reverse responder and identify areas where you can improve your system. Only classroom and practical training under qualified instructors will prepare you to function safely and effectively to confined space incidents. Now let's talk about trench operations. Trench rescue operations present a rarely encountered but extremely dangerous rescue operation even for trained teams. The ability to stay alive during trench rescue operations depends on the team being able to make the proper decisions, locate the correct resources and keep rescue personnel from making improper decisions. Statistics indicate the following is true of the construction industry when looking at trench related injuries and fatalities. Rescuers or first responders are not immune from the same potential. The average age of a worker killed or injured is 37 years old. The majority of fatalities occur in unsupported vertical wall trenches of five feet or greater in depth. Only nine cases in the last 10 years had some form of protection in place. Averages estimate that the number of workers killed or injured in excavation or cave-in accidents is between 42 and 100 and fatality rates for trenching are 112% greater than all other construction accidents. Before discussing exactly what you as a first responder can do at the scene of a trench or excavation collapse, we need to cover some preliminary information regarding OSHA regulations and terminology and reveal some mistaken notions about trench collapses which may cloud your decision. OSHA provides guidelines for trench and excavations under 29 CFR 1926. These guidelines are intended for use by the general construction industry but represent an excellent planning and training document for emergency response teams. These standards provide a basis from which to create protection systems and identify hazards which may impact your operation. Before we go any farther, let's discuss some terminology about the way we describe trenches and excavations. Generally, the following rules apply when speaking about trenches and excavations. A trench, by definition, is deeper than it is wide and is not wider than 15 feet. An excavation is wider than it is deep. When we look at a trench or excavation, we need to agree on the following terms. The dirt that is taken out of the trench and placed along the side is called the spoil pile. Anything in the vertical or upright are called walls. The area located 360 degrees around the trench is called the lip. The bottom of the trench is called the floor. And last but not least, the lip, excuse me. You've got a lot of definitions. You said it wasn't going to be that complicated but you've got a spoil pile. You've got the lip around the edge of the floor. If we use these common terms, Chase, then is that so that we as operators on the scene understand when command says something so there's no question, right? It gives us a common terminology, much like vehicle extrication, so when we talk we're common. Okay, well let's look at some of the key items then on this. Good. Finally, let's consider the following items when we talk about trench regulations, response or operations. OSHA requires that any trench deeper than five feet in depth be predicted by some method. We will discuss our methods later on. The spoil pile must have a minimum two foot setback from the lip. And last but not least, the lip is a very dangerous place to be. We will see why later. From an emergency response perspective, we usually make trenches safe by using a system called conventional sheeting and shoring. Anything that we use usually panels that is upright and acts as a structural member or artificial wall is called sheeting or sheeting with strong back. Anything that we use to create shoring zones to hold the sheeting in place and place pressure in the walls is called shoring. We spoke about assessing your capabilities earlier in the same holds true for trench collapse operations. You must assess your capability to respond to and safely mitigate these types of incidents. You should ask yourself, does the authority having jurisdiction have trained, competent and properly equipped teams? Do I have a survival or awareness level course from my entire department that teaches how to recognize a trench rescue situation? Hazards that exist at a trench or excavation emergency, risk benefit analysis, use location and functions of technical rescue teams, proper size up and decision making when confronted as a first responder at trench and excavation emergencies and what actions the first responder should take and when to stop. Where can I assess the needed equipment and logistics to safely and effectively operate at a trench or excavation collapse? Proper protective equipment, panels ensuring equipment, dewatering equipment, ventilation and monitoring equipment, hand and power tools, airbags and lifting equipment, harnesses and hardware, rope systems, patient packaging and removal equipment, an accountability system and a functional IMS system. Does your department have a standard operating procedure for trench and excavation emergencies? Once again, this form of evaluation will enable you to assess your local or regional capabilities to safely and effectively accomplish these types of operations. It is beyond the scope of this presentation to actually teach trench rescue operations. So we will again focus on the most important aspects, a proper size up of evaluation of hazards, controlling the applicable hazards by making rational decisions based on your information gathering. There are typically three types of collapses which occur. While they may not look exactly like this when you see them in the field, the process by which the collapse occurs is the same. These are basically a spoil pile slide. This is when the weight of the dirt or the proximity of the spoil to the lip of the trench either allows the dirt to actually roll in or it actually falls, part of the lip of the trench falls in. A shear wall. Picture the National Geographic iceberg that has an entire section simply split away and fall in mass like a large slab of concrete and you will understand this type of collapse. This is very typical in clay soils. It is extremely rapid and if you think you will see it or hear it coming, you've made a fatal mistake. A sloth. This is where the belly bowels inward and this may or may not leave an overhang. It is difficult to see and remember we said the lip was a dangerous place to be. If you do not assess this correctly and step on the overhang, you may well find yourself in a trench as the next victim. Remember that you do not have to have a collapse to have a trench accident. Personnel may also become entrapped or incapacitated by any of the following methods. Heavy pipe, concrete vaults may drop on them. Trapped by running material, trapped or pinned by heavy equipment, overcome by atmospheric conditions, drowned or incapacitated by water or simply experience a medical problem in the trench. Regardless of the reason you as a first responder or rescue team member must make the trench safe before entry. In order to perform a proper assessment, the first responder must be capable of recognizing certain hazards associated with trench and excavation emergencies. This is probably the single most important aspect of the entire operation. Generally the hazards that you will encounter with these types of operations may be broken down into several general categories which include mechanical, chemical, man-made, water and electrical hazards. Before we go any further, I'd like to discuss some of the fallacies which some personnel have regarding the entering of open and unprotected collapse zones or open trenches. Perhaps the biggest mechanical hazard is the open and unprotected walls of the trench. Let's explore this just a little bit further. Rescuers typically underestimate the speed, weight and magnitude of damage that can be done by moving dirt and soil. In general, we can provide the following information regarding the impact that moving or static soil has. Once a trench is open, gravity and hydrostatic forces want to literally push the walls into the open area. A cubic foot of dirt weighs approximately 100 pounds. That means that two feet of dirt on a rescuer or victim's chest or back weighs about 800 pounds. Subsequently, a person trapped under this much dirt may asphyxiate due to the sheer weight and inability of the chest to expand and contract. Just because a person's head is uncovered does not mean they have an airway. If a cubic foot of dirt weighs 100 pounds then a cubic yard weighs about 1.5 tons. The weight and movement alone is enough to crush an unsuspecting rescuer. Finally, I'd like to address a pet peeve. The use of taglines and breathing apparatus under the misconception that you will be able to pull a rescuer out when a collapse occurs or that they can breathe off the apparatus until you get them out. All you will find at the end of your body recovery line is a dead firefighter with a full breathing apparatus. You will not be able to pull them out and they will not be able to breathe. The keys to a successful operation in the ability to perform an approach assessment and a resource assessment. The information gathered from these evaluations will guide your strategical and tactical decision during the operation. Try to assess the following information as you work your way towards the incident. Who is in charge? What has happened? What is the extent of the injury problem? Is there a language barrier? What hazards exist at the site? Is this a rescue or a recovery? During your approach assessment, literally as you approach the scene in the apparatus, you should begin looking for the hazards we classified earlier. As you approach, notice the following additional potential hazards. Traffic, both automobiles and heavy equipment. This must be shut down to avoid secondary collapse from vibrations. Utilities, overhead electrical lines can collapse into a trench. If you do not see overhead lines, that is an indication that underground utilities exist. Mechanical hazards. Look for large concrete or iron pipes which may roll in on top of rescuers or bedding material or any other mechanical items which can move. Electrical hazards. Beware of the cable pulled out of this ground by the excavator. Contacting the excavator or the wire could be fatal. Water hazards. The presence of freestanding or free flowing water in a trench is in and of itself a hazard and could result in the death of your patient. Utilities. Notice the exposed but unbroken utilities, in this case, a water line. Rupture of the line will create severe problems and support of the unbroken but unsupported utilities is critical. Chemical. There's a gas can here. If a collapse were to occur, gas could be spread throughout the ground and one ignition source could create an explosion. Also, there's a diesel tank here. While not a flammable, this is a combustible and needs to be regarded as a hazard. Mechanical. Notice the large pipes, back hose, excavators and proximity of the traffic to the trench. These equate the vibrations, moving hazards that can crush or kill and wait problems for the walls of an open trench. Atmospheric. Exhaust fans from the operation of a saw in the hole. This is pure exhaust including carbon monoxide. This coupled with organic methane creates a potential for an atmospherically deficient or IDLH environment. By definition, these are confined spaces. Tripping hazard. This is a hazard that we create when we begin to drop equipment and other items around the trench. Notice this trail of lumber and equipment right up to the lip of the trench. And personnel. If you're not directly involved in the operation and you can see what's going on, you're literally too damn close. These represent only a small sample of the hazards that exist and require your identification. Once you have accomplished this, you can begin your resource assessment, asking yourself, do I have the proper equipment, trained personnel and logistics to conduct this operation? So the biggest question is, what can I do now that I've accomplished all this? Well, what you can do is make the general area safe. This area extends from approximately 10 feet outside your rescue area for great distances in all direction. Making the general area safe consists of the following acts. Stop all traffic for 100 yards in all directions. This includes both highway traffic as well as heavy equipment operation around the site. Create an outer circle or perimeter with fire line tape to provide a means of control and access to the area. Establish command and assure your personnel, understand what not to do. And once you have accomplished this, a large task in and of itself, you need to make the rescue area safe. If you have the equipment to do so, provide the victim or victims if they're still alive with oxygen and some form of head and eye protection. Have your medic assess them from a distance and make a quick visual survey of their condition. Ventilate the trench with positive pressure ventilation and cold weather or heater unit may be necessary. Ground pad the trench to distribute weight and level the spoil pile, moving it back and ground padding the front. Evaluate the interior of the trench from the ends and make sure you've identified utilities or hazards that were not seen before.