 Section 7 of the Verbalist. The dictionaries authorize the use of this word as a synonym of say and remark, as, for example, what did you observe? For what did you say or remark? In this sense, however, it is better to leave observed to the exclusive use of those who delight in being fine. O'clock. It is a quarter to ten o'clock. What does this statement mean, literally? We understand by it that it lacks a quarter of ten, in other words, of being ten. But it does not really mean that. In as much as two means toward, it really means a quarter after nine. We should say, then, a quarter of, which means, literally, a quarter out of ten. Of all others. The vice of covetousness of all others enters deepest into the soul. This sentence says that covetousness is one of the other vices, a thing that cannot be another thing, nor can it be one of a number of other things. The sentence should be, of all the vices, covetousness enters deepest into the soul, or the vice of covetousness of all the vices enters, etc. Or the vice of covetousness above all others enters, etc. Of any. This phrase is often used when, of all, is meant. Thus, this is the largest of any I have seen, should be, the largest of all, etc. Off of. In such sentences as, give me a yard off of this piece of calico, either the off or the of is vulgarly superfluous. The sentence would be correct with either one, but not with both of them. The apples fell off of the tree, read, fell off the tree. Often. This adverb is properly compared by changing its termination. Often, oftener, oftenest. Why some writers use more and most to compare it, it is not easy to see. This mode of comparing it is certainly not euphonious. O. O. It is only the most careful writers who use these two interjections with proper discrimination. The distinction between them is said to be modern. O. H. is simply an exclamation, and should always be followed by some mark of punctuation, usually by an exclamation point. O. You are come at last. O. Help him, you sweet heavens. O. What was me? O. I die, Horatio. O. In addition to being an exclamation, denotes a calling to or adoration. Thus, hear, O heavens, and give ear, O earth. O grave, where is thy victory? O heavenly powers restore him. O shame, where is thy blush? Older. Elder. He is the older man of the two and the oldest in the neighborhood. He is the elder of the two sons and the eldest of the family. The elder son is heir to the estate. He is older than his brother by ten years. On to. We get on a chair, on an omnibus, on a stump, and on a spree, and not on two. One. Certain pronouns of demonstrative signification are called indefinite because they refer to no particular subject. This is one of them. If we were putting a supposition by way of argument or illustration, we might say, suppose I were to lose my way in a wood, or suppose you were to lose your way in a wood, or suppose one were to lose one's way in a wood. All these forms are used, but as a rule the last is to be preferred. The first verges on egotism, and the second makes free with another's person, whereas the third is indifferent. If one's honesty were impeached, what should one do is more courtly than to take either one's self or the person addressed for the example. One should be followed by one and not by he. The better acquainted one is with any kind of rhetorical trick, the less liable he is to be misled by it. Should be, the less liable one is to be misled by it. In the phrase, any of the little ones, one is the numeral employed in the manner of a pronoun by indicating something that has gone on before, or perhaps has to come after. I like peaches, but I must have a ripe one, or ripe ones. Professor Bain says in his composition Grammar quote, this pronoun continually lands writers in difficulties. English idiom requires that when the pronoun has to be again referred to, it should be used itself a second time. The correct usage is shown by Pope. One may be ashamed to consume half one's days in bringing sense and rhyme together. It would be against idiom to say half his days. Still, the repetition of the pronoun is often felt to be heavy, and writers have recourse to various substitutions. Even an ear accustomed to the idiom can scarcely accept with unmixed pleasure this instance from Browning. A lack. One lies oneself, even in the stating that one's end was truth. Truth only if one states so much in words. The representative I, or we, occasionally acts the part of one. The following sentence presents a curious alternation of we with one. Possibly not accidental, George Eliot. It's a desperately vexatious thing that, after all one's reflections and quiet determinations, we should be ruled by moods that one can't calculate on beforehand. By the use of we here, a more pointed reference is suggested while the vagueness actually remains. Fenimore Cooper, like Scott, is not very particular. An example may be quoted, modesty is a poor man's wealth. But as we grow substantial in the world, Patrune, one can afford to begin to speak truth of himself as well as of his neighbor. Where Cooper a careful writer, we might persuade ourselves that he chose we and one with a purpose. We might indicate that the speaker had himself and the Patrune directly in his eye, although at the same time he wanted to put it generally. And one might hint that modesty succeeded in getting the better of him. But himself and his alone show that such speculations are too refined for the occasion. The form a man, which was at one time common, seems to be reviving. In Adam Bede, we have, a man can never do anything at variance with his own nature. We might substitute one. One was more frequent in good writing formerly than now. Neither do men light a candle and put it under a bushel. Do men gather grapes of thorns? Hume is fond of expressing a general subject by men. Small birds are much more exposed to the cold than large ones. This usage is hardly indefinite, and it needs no further exemplification. End quote. Only. This word, when used as an adjective, is more frequently misplaced than any other word in the language. Indeed, I am confident that it is not correctly placed half the time, either in conversation or in writing. Thus in its pages papers of sterling merit only will only appear. Miss Braddon. Things are getting dull down in Texas. They only shot only. Three men down there last week. I have only got only three. Only is sometimes improperly used for except or unless. Thus the trains will not stop only when the bell rings. The meaning here is clearly except when the bell rings. Dr. Bain in his Higher English Grammar, speaking of the order of words, says, quote, The word requiring most attention is only. According to the position of only the same words may be made to express very different meanings. He only lived for their sakes. Here only must be held as qualifying lived for their sakes, the emphasis being unlived, the word immediately adjoining. The meaning then is he lived, but did not work, did not die, did not do any other thing for their sakes. He lived only for their sakes, only now qualifies for their sakes, and the sentence means he lived for this one reason, namely for their sakes, and not for any other reason. He lived for their sakes only. The force of the word, when placed at the end, is peculiar. Then it often has a diminutive or disparaging signification. He lived for their sakes, and not for any more worthy reason. He gave six pence only is an insinuation that more was expected. By the use of alone instead of only, other meanings are expressed. He alone lived for their sakes, that is, he, and nobody else, did so. He lived for their sakes alone, or for the sake of them alone. That is, not for the sake of any other persons. It was alone by the help of the Confederates that any such design could be carried out. Better only. When men grow virtuous in their old age, they only make a sacrifice to God of the devil's leavings. Pope. Here only is rightly placed. Think only of the past as its remembrance gives you pleasure, should be. Think of the past only as its remembrance, etc. As he did not leave his name, it was only known that a gentleman had called on business. It was known only. I can only refute the accusation by laying before you the whole. This would mean the only thing I am able to do is to refute. I may not retaliate or let it drop, I must refute it. The Negroes are to appear at church only in boots. That is, when the Negroes go to church they are to have no clothing but boots. The Negroes are to appear only at church in boots might mean that they are not to appear anywhere but at church, whether in boots or out of them. The proper arrangement would be to connect the adverbial adjunct in boots with its verb appear, and to make only qualify at church and no more. The Negroes are to appear in boots only at church. It thus appears very plain that we should look well to our onlies. Aught should. These two words, though they both imply obligation, should not be used indiscriminately. Aught is the stronger term, what we ought to do we are morally bound to do. We ought to be truthful and honest, and should be respectful to our elders and kind to our inferiors. Overflown is the past participle of to fly, and flowed of to flow. As therefore a river does not fly over its banks, but flows over them, we should say of it that it is overflowed, and not that it has overflown. Overly This word is now used only by the unschooled. Owing Refer to do. Pants This abbreviation is not used by those who are careful in the choice of words. The purist does not use the word pantaloons even, but trousers. Pants are worn by gents who eat lunches and open wine, and trousers are worn by gentlemen who eat luncheons and order wine. Paraphanalia This is a law term. In Roman law it meant the goods which a woman brought to her husband, besides her dowry. In English law it means the goods which a woman is allowed to have after the death of her husband, besides her dower, consisting of her apparel and ornaments suitable to her rank. When used in speaking of the affairs of everyday life, it is generally misused. Parler This word in the sense of drawing-room, according to Dr. Hall, except in the United States and some of the English colonies, is obsolete. Partake This is a very fine word to use for eat. Just the word for young women who hobble on French heels. Partially Partly It is only partially done. This use of the adverb partially is sanctioned by high authority, but that does not make it correct. A thing done in part is partly, not partially done. Participals When the present participle is used substantively in sentences like the following, it is preceded by the definite article and followed by the preposition of. The omitting of the preposition is a common error. Thus, or it is the drawing a conclusion which was before either unknown or dark, should be the drawing of a conclusion. Prompted by the most extreme vanity he persisted in the writing bad versus, should be in writing bad versus, or in the writing of bad versus. There is a misuse of the article ah, which is very common. It is the using it before the word most, moon. Most writers would have said the using of it. Mr. Moon argues for his construction. Particles Nothing but study of the best writers and practice in composition will enable us to decide what are the prepositions and conjunctions that ought to go with certain verbs. The following examples illustrate some common blunders. It was characterized with eloquence. Read by A testimonial of the merits of his grammar. Read to It was an example of the love to form comparisons. Read of forming. Repetition is always to be preferred before obscurity. Read to We made an effort for meeting them. Read to meet. They have no other object but to come. Read other object than or omit other. Two verbs are not unfrequently followed by a single preposition which accords with one only. For example, this duty is repeated and inculcated upon the reader. Repeat upon is nonsense. We must read is repeated to and inculcated upon. Nichols English composition, page 39. We often see four used with the substantive sympathy. The best practice, however, uses with. Thus, words cannot express the deep sympathy I feel with you. Queen Victoria Party This is a very good word in its place, but it is very much out of its place when used, as it often is by the vulgar, where good taste would use the word person. Patronize This word and its derivatives would be much less used by the American tradesmen than they are if he were better acquainted with their true meaning. Then he would solicit his neighbors custom, not their patronage. A man can have no patrons without incurring obligations, without becoming a protégé. While a man may have customers innumerable, and, instead of placing himself under obligations to them, he may place them under obligations to him. Princes are the patrons of those tradesmen whom they allow to call themselves their purveyors, as John Smith, Habidasher to H.R.H., the Prince of Wales. Here the Prince patronizes John Smith. Palmel This adverb means mixed or mingled together. As men, horses, chariots, crowded Palmel. It cannot properly be applied to an individual. To say, for example, he rushed Palmel down the stairs is as incorrect as it would be to say he rushed down the stairs, mixed together. Purr This Latin preposition is a good deal used in English, as, for example, in such phrases as per day, per man, per pound, per ton, and so on. In all such cases, it is better to use plain English, and say, a day, a man, a pound, a ton, etc. Purr is correct before Latin nouns only, as, per annum, per diem, per cent, etc. Purr form She performs on the piano beautifully, in how much better taste it is to say simply She plays the piano well, or more superlatively exceedingly well, or admirably. If we talk about performing on musical instruments, to be consistent, we should call those who perform piano performers, cornet performers, violin performers, and so on. Perpetually This word is sometimes misused for continually. Dr. William Matthews, in his Words, Their Use, and Abuse, says, The Irish are perpetually using shall for will. Perpetual means never ceasing, continuing without intermission, uninterrupted, while continual means that which is constantly renewed and recurring with perhaps frequent stops and interruptions. As the Irish do something besides misuse shall, the doctor should have said that they continually use shall for will. I might perhaps venture to intimate that perpetually is likewise misused in the following sentence, which I copy from the London Queen, if I were not conscious that the monster who can write and print such a sentence would not hesitate to cable a thunderbolt at an offender on the slightest provocation. Judge if my fears are groundless. Quote, But some few people contract the ugly habit of making use of these expressions unconsciously and continuously, perpetually interlarding their conversation with them. End quote, Person Refer to Party Also Individual Personality This word does not, as some persons think, mean the articles worn on one's person. It is properly a law term, and means personal property. There is but one case on record of a peer of England leaving over seven million five hundred thousand dollars personality. Personification That rhetorical figure which attributes sex, life, or action to inanimate objects, or ascribes to objects and brutes the acts and qualities of rational beings, is called personification or prosopopeia. The mountains sing together, the hills rejoice and clap their hands. The worm aware of his intent harangued him thus. See, winter comes to rule the varied year, sullen and sad with all his rising train. Thompson. So saying, her rash hand in evil hour forth reaching to the fruit she plucked she ate. Both felt the wound, and nature from her seat, sighing through all her works gave signs of woe that all was lost. Milton. War and love are strange compeers. War sheds blood, and love sheds tears. War has swords, and love has darts. War breaks heads, and love breaks hearts. Gravity is often less foolish and gravity less wise than each of them appears. The English language by reserving the distinction of gender for living beings that have sex gives a special scope for personification. The highest form of personification should be used seldom, and only when justified by the presence of strong feeling. Bane. Knowledge and wisdom, far from being one, have oft times no connection. Knowledge dwells in heads replete with thoughts of other men. Wisdom in minds attentive to their own. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much. Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. Cowper. Phenomenon. Plural. Phenomena. Plead. The imperfect tense and the perfect participle of the verb to plead are both pleaded and not pled. He pleaded not guilty. You should have pleaded your cause with more fervor. Plenty. In Wooster's dictionary we find the following note. Quote, Plenty is much used colloquially as an adjective in the sense of plentiful, both in this country and in England. And this use is supported by respectable authorities, though it is condemned by various critics. Johnson says, It is used barbarously, I think, for plentiful. And Dr. Campbell, in his philosophy of rhetoric, says, Plenty for plentiful appears to me so gross a vulgarism that I should not have thought it worthy of a place here if I had not sometimes found it in works of considerable merit. End quote. We should say, then, that money is plentiful and not that it is plenty. Pleanasm. Redundancy or pleonasm is the use of more words than are necessary to express the thought clearly. They returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth. The five words in italics are redundant or pleonastic. The different departments of science and of art mutually reflect light on each other. Either of the expressions in italics embodies the whole idea. The universal opinion of all men is a pleonastic expression often heard. I wrote you a letter yesterday. Here a letter is redundant. Redundancy is sometimes permissible for the sureer conveyance of meaning, for emphasis, and in the language of poetic embellishment. Polite. This word is much used by persons of doubtful culture, where those of the better sort use the word kind. We accept kind, not polite, invitations, and when any one has been obliging, we tell him that he has been kind. And when an interviewing reporter tells us of his having met with a polite reception, we may be sure that the person by whom he has been received deserves well for his considerate kindness. I thank you and Mrs. Pope for my kind reception. Atterbury. Portion. This word is often incorrectly used for part. A portion is properly a part assigned, allotted, set aside for a special purpose. A share, a division. The verb to portion means to divide, to parcel, to endow. We ask therefore, in what part, not in what portion, of the country, state, county, town, or street do you live? Or if we prefer grand eloquence to correctness, reside. In the sentence a large portion of the land is unfilled. The right word would be either part or proportion, according to the intention of the writer. Posted. A word very much and very inelegantly used for informed. Such expressions as I will post you, I must post myself up, if I had been better posted and the like, are at the best, but one remove from slaying. Predicate. This word is often very incorrectly used in the sense of to base, as he predicates his opinion on insufficient data. Then we sometimes hear people talk about predicating an action upon certain information or upon somebody's statement. To predicate means primarily to speak before, and has come to be properly used in the sense of assumed or believed to be the consequence of. Examples. Contentment is predicated of virtue. Good health may be predicated of a good constitution. He who is not very sure that he uses the word correctly would do better not to use it at all. Prejudice. Pre-possess. Both these words mean to incline in one direction or the other for some reason not founded in justice. But by common consent prejudice has come to be used in an unfavorable sense, and pre-possess in a favorable one. Thus we say he is prejudiced against him, and he is pre-possessed in his favor. We sometimes hear the expression he is prejudiced in his favor, but this cannot be accounted a good use of the word. Prepositions. The errors made in the use of the prepositions are very numerous. The indolent child is one who, that, has a strong aversion from action of any sort. Grams English Synonyms. Page 236. The prevailing and best modern usage is in favor of two instead of from after averse and aversion and before the object. Clearness enables the reader to see thoughts without noticing the language with which they are clothed. We clothe thoughts in language. Shakespeare and the Bible are models for the English-speaking tongue. Ibbid. If this means models of English, then it should be of, but if it means models for English organs of speech to practice on, then it should be for, or if it means models to model English tongues after, then also it should be for. If the resemblance is too faint, the mind is fatigued while attempting to trace the analogies. Aristotle is in error while thus describing governments. Ibbid. Here we have two examples, not of the misuse of the preposition, but of the erroneous use of the adverb while instead of the preposition in. For my part I cannot think that Shelley's poetry, except by snatches and fragments, has the value of the good work of Wordsworth or Byron. Matthew Arnold. Should be, except in snatches. Taxes with us are collected nearly, almost, solely from real and personal estate. Appleton's Journal. Taxes are levied on estates and collected from the owners. If I am not commended for the beauty of my works I may hope to be pardoned for their brevity. We may commend him for the beauty of his works, and we may pardon him for their brevity, if we deem the brevity of fault. But this is not what he means. He means that, at any rate, he shall have the merit of brevity. If I am not commended for the beauty of my works I may hope to be pardoned on account of their brevity. This is what the doctor meant. But this would have marred a little the antithesis. marred a little the antithesis. It would have unsettled a little of the balance of that seesaw in which Dr. Johnson so much delighted, and which, falling into the hands of novel writers and of members of Parliament, has, by moving unencumbered with any of the doctor's reason or sense, lulled so many thousands asleep. Dr. Johnson created a race of writers and speakers. Mr. Speaker, that the State of the Nation is very critical, all men will allow, but that it is wholly desperate few will believe. When you hear or see a sentence like this, be sure that the person who speaks or writes it has been reading Dr. Johnson or some of his imitators. But observe, these imitators go no further than the frame of the sentences. They, in general, take care not to imitate the doctor in knowledge and reasoning. The rhetoricians would have us avoid such forms of expression as, the boy went to and asked the advice of his teacher. I called on and had a conversation with my brother. Very often the preposition is not repeated in a sentence when it should be. We say properly, he comes from Ohio or from Indiana, or he comes either from Ohio or Indiana. Pre-possess Refer to prejudice Present Introduce Few errors are more common, especially among those who are always straining to be fine, than that of using present in the social world instead of introduce. Present means to place in the presence of a superior. Introduce to bring to be acquainted A person is presented at court and on an official occasion to our president, but persons who are unknown to each other are introduced by a common acquaintance, and in these introductions it is the younger who was introduced to the older, the lower to the higher in place or social position, the gentleman to the lady. A lady should say as a rule that Mr. Blank was introduced to her, not that she was introduced to Mr. Blank. Presumptive This word is sometimes misused by the careless for presumptuous. Preventive A useless and unwarranted syllable is sometimes added to this word, preventative. Previous This adjective is much used in adverbial sense, thus previous to my return, etc. Until previous is recognized as an adverb, if we would speak grammatically we must say previously to my return. Previously to my leaving England I called on his lordship. Procure This is a word much used by people who strive to be fine. Where did you get it? With them is, where did you procure it? Profanity The extent to which some men habitually interlare their talk with oaths is disgusting even to many who, on occasion, do not themselves hesitate to give expression to their feelings in oaths, portly, and unctuous. If these fellows could be made to know how offensive to decency they make themselves, they would perhaps be less profane. Promise This word is sometimes very improperly used for assure, thus I promise you I was very much astonished. Pronouns of the first person Well, the ordinary uses of I and we, as the singular and plural pronouns of the first person would appear to be above all ambiguity, uncertainty, or dispute. Yet when we consider the force of the plural we, we are met with a contradiction for, as a rule, only one person can speak at the same time to the same audience. It is only by some exceptional arrangement, or some latitude or license of expression that several persons can be conjoint speakers. For example, a plurality may sing together in chorus, and may join in the responses at church, or in the simultaneous repetition of the Lord's prayer or the creed. Again, one person may be the authorized spokesman in delivering a judgment or opinion held by a number of persons in common. Finally, in written compositions, the we is not unsuitable, because a plurality of persons may append their names to a document. A speaker using we may speak for himself and one or more others. Commonly he stands forward as the representative of a class, more or less comprehensive. As soon as my companion and I had entered the field, we saw a man coming toward us. We like our new curate. You do us poets the greatest injustice. We must see to the efficiency of our forces. The widest use of the pronoun will be mentioned presently. We is used for I in the decrees of persons in authority, as when King Lear says, Know that we have divided in three our kingdom. By the fiction of plurality, a veil of modesty is thrown over the assumption of vast superiority over human beings generally. For we may be regarded as an official form whereby the speaker personally is magnified or unable to rise to the dignity of the occasion. The editorial we is to be understood on the same principle, and author using we appears as if he were not alone, but sharing with other persons the responsibility of his views. This representative position is at its utmost stretch in the practice of using we for human beings generally. As in discoursing on the laws of human nature. The preacher, the novelist, or the philosopher, in dwelling upon the peculiarity of our common constitution, being himself an example of what he is speaking of, associates the rest of mankind with him, and speaks collectively by means of we. We are weak and fallible. We are of yesterday. We are doomed to dissolution. Here we have no continuing city, but we seek one to come. It is not unfrequent to have one sentence, or in close proximity both the editorial and the representative meaning, the effect being ambiguity and confusion. Let us, the author, now consider why we, humanity, generally, overrate distant good. In such a case the author should fall back upon the singular for himself. I will now consider. We, speaker, think we, himself and hearers together, should come to the conclusion. Say either I think, or you would. The following extract from Butler exemplifies a similar confusion. Suppose we, representative, are capable of happiness and of misery in degrees equally intense and extreme, yet we, representative, are capable of the latter for a much longer time beyond all comparison. We, change of subject to a limited class, see men in the tortures of pain, such as our, back to representative, make that anything may become the instrument of pain and sorrow to us. The we at the commencement of the second sentence, we see men in the tortures, could be advantageously changed to you, or the passive construction could be substituted. The remaining we's would then be consistently representative. From the greater emphasis of singularity, energetic speakers and writers sometimes use I as representative of mankind at large. Thus, the current impressions received through the senses are not voluntary in origin. What I see in walking is seen because I have an organ of vision. The question of general moral obligation is forcibly stated by Paley in the individual form why am I obliged to keep my word. It is sometimes well to confine the attention of the hearer or reader to his own relation to the matter under consideration, more especially in difficult or non-popular argument or exposition. The speaker by using I does the action himself, or makes himself the example, the hearer being expected to put himself in the same position. End quote. Bain's composition grammar. Pronouns of the second person. Quote. Anonymous usages have sprung up in connection with these pronouns. The plural form has almost wholly superseded the singular, a usage more than five centuries old. Footnote. The use of the plural for the singular was established as early as the beginning of the fourteenth century. Morris, page 118, section 153. End footnote. The motive is courtesy. The singling out of one person for address is supposed to be a liberty or an excess of familiarity, and the effect is softened or diluted by the fiction of taking in others. If our address is uncomplementary, the sting is lessened by the plural form, and if the reverse, the shock to modesty is not so great. This is a refinement that was unknown to the ancient languages. The orators of Greece delighted in the strong pointed personal appeal implied in the singular thou. In modern German, thou, do, is the address of familiarity and intimacy, while the ordinary pronoun is the curiously indirect they, ze. On solemn occasions we may revert to thou. Cato, in his meditative soliloquy on reading Plato's views on the immortality of the soul before killing himself, says, Plato, thou reasonest well. So in the commandments, thou addresses to each individual an unavoidable appeal, thou shall not. But our ordinary means of making the personal appeal is you, sir, you, madam, my lord, you, et cetera. We reserve thou for the special case of addressing the deity. The application of the motive of courtesy is here reversed. It would be irreverent to merge this vast personality in a promiscuous assemblage. You is not unfrequently employed like we as a representative pronoun. The action is represented with great vividness when the person or persons addressed may be put forward as the performers. There is such an echo among the old ruins and vaults that if you stamp a little louder than ordinary, you hear the sound repeated. Some practice is required to see these animals in the thick forest, even when you hear them close by you. You should not be a mixture of thou and you in the same passage, thus Thackery, adventures of Philip. So as thy sun rises, friend, over the humble housetops round about your home, shall you wake many and many a day to duty and labor. So Cooper, Waterwitch, thou hast both master and mistress? You have told us of the latter, but we would know something of the former. Who is thy master? Cooper, Scott, and others might also be quoted. Yee and Yee were at one time strictly distinguished as different cases. Yee was nominative, Yee objective, dative, or accusative, but the Elizabethan dramatists confounded the forms irredeemably, and Yee has gradually ousted Yee from ordinary use. Yee is restricted to the expression of strong feeling, and in this employment occurs chiefly in the poets. Bain's Composition Grammar Proof This word is much and very improperly used for evidence, which is only the medium of proof, proof being the effective evidence. What evidence have you to offer in proof of the truth of your statement? Refer also to evidence. Propose Purpose Writers and speakers often fail to discriminate properly between the respective meanings of these two verbs. Propose correctly used means to put forward or offer for the consideration of others. Hence a proposal is a scheme or design offered for acceptance or consideration. A Proposition Purpose means to intend, to design, to resolve. Hence a purpose is an intention, an aim, that which one sets before one's self. Examples What do you purpose doing in the matter? What do you propose that we shall do in the matter? I will do means I purpose doing, or to do. I purpose to write a history of England from the accession of King James II down to a time which is within the memory of men still living, Macaulay. It will be observed that Macaulay says, I purpose to write, and not I purpose writing, using the verb in the infinitive rather than in the participial form. On which he purposed to mount one of his little guns. Refer to infinitive. Proposition This word is often used when proposal would be better, for the reason that proposal has but one meaning, and is shorter by one syllable. He demonstrated the proposition of Euclid and rejected the proposal of his friend. Prosaist Dr. Hall is of the opinion that this is a word we shall do well to encourage. It is used by good writers. Proven This form, for the past participle of the verb to prove, is said to be a scotticism. It is not used by careful writers and speakers. The correct form is proved. The present participle of the verb to provide is sometimes vulgarly used for the conjunction provided, as in this sentence from the London Queen. Society may be congratulated providing that, etc. Provoke Refer to aggravate End of Section 7. Recording by Bill Borst. Section 8 of the Verbalist This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Bill Borst. The Verbalist By Alfred Ayres. Section 8. Punctuation Through Sit Set Punctuation The importance of punctuation cannot be overestimated. It not only helps to make plain the meaning of what one writes, but it may prevent one's being misconstrued. Though no two writers could be found who punctuate just alike, still in the main those who pay attention to the art put in their stops in essentially the same manner. The difference that punctuation may make in the meaning of language is well illustrated by the following anecdote. At Ramesa there lived a benevolent and hospitable prior, who caused these lines to be painted over his door. Be open evermore, O thou my door, to none be shut, to honest or to poor. In time the good prior was succeeded by a man as selfish as his predecessor was generous. The lines over the door of the priory were allowed to remain. One stop, however, was altered, which made them read thus. Be open evermore, O thou my door, to none be shut, to honest or to poor. He punctuates best who makes his punctuation contribute most to the clear expression of his thought, and that construction is best that has least need of being punctuated. The comma The chief difference in the punctuation of different writers is usually in their use of the comma, in regard to which there is a good deal of latitude. Each is left to individual taste. Nowadays, the best practice uses it sparingly. An idea of the extent to which opinions differ with regard to the use of the comma may be formed from the following excerpt from a paper prepared for private use. Quote, In the following examples gathered from various sources chiefly from standard books, the superfluous commas are enclosed in parentheses. 1. It remains comma, perhaps comma, to be said comma, that if any lesson at all, comma, as to these delicate matters, comma, is needed, comma, in this period, it is not so much a lesson, etc. 2. The obedience is not due to the power of a right authority, but to the spirit of fear, and comma, therefore, comma, is comma, in reality, comma, no obedience at all. 3. The patriot disturbances in Canada awakened deep interest among the people of the United States, comma, who lived adjacent to the frontier. 4. Observers, comma, who have recently investigated this point, comma, do not all agree, etc. 5. The wind did comma, in an instant comma, what man and steam together had failed to do in hours. 6. All the cabin passengers, comma, situated beyond the center of the boat, comma, were saved. 7. No other writer has depicted comma with so much art or so much accuracy, comma, the habits, the manners, etc. 8. If it shall give satisfaction to those who have comma in any way, comma, befriended it, the author will feel, etc., 9. Formed comma, or consisting of comma, clay, 10. The subject, witchcraft, grew interesting, and comma, to examine Sarah, Cloyce, and Elizabeth Proctor, the deputy governor, comma, and five other magistrates, comma, went to Salem. 11. The Lusitanians, comma, who had not left their home, comma, rose as a man, etc. 12. Vague reports had preceded him to Washington, and his Mississippi friends, comma, who chanced to be at the capital, comma, were not backward to make their boast of him. 13. Our faith has acquired a new vigor, comma, and a clearer vision. 14. In 1819, comma, he removed to Cambridge. 15. Doray was born at Strasburg, comma, in 1832, and labors, etc. 16. We should never apply dry compresses, charpie, or wadding, comma, to the wound. 17. To stand idle, to look, act, or think, comma, in a leisurely way. 18. Portraits taken from the farmers, school masters, and peasantry, comma, of the neighborhood. 19. Gladly welcomed painters of Flanders, Holland, and Spain, comma, to their shores. In all these cases the clauses between or following the enclosed commas are so closely connected grammatically with the immediately preceding words or phrases that they should be read without a perceptible pause, or with only a slight one for breath, without change of voice. Some of the commas would grossly pervert the meaning if strictly construed. Thus, from number three it would appear that the people of the United States in general lived adjacent to the frontier. From number four that all observers have recently investigated the point in question. From number six that all the cabin passengers were so situated that they were saved, whereas it is meant that only a certain small proportion of them were saved. From number ten, Bancroft, that somebody whose name is accidentally omitted went to Salem to examine Sarah Cloyce and Elizabeth Proctor, the deputy governor, and five other magistrates. From number eleven that none of the Lusitanians had left their home, whereas it was the slaughter by the Romans of a great number of them who had left their home that caused the rising. Commas are frequently omitted, and in certain positions very generally where the sense and correct reading require a pause. In the following examples such commas omitted in the works from which they were taken are enclosed in brackets. The modes of thought, comma, and the types of character which those modes produce, comma, are essentially and universally transformed. Two, taken by itself, comma, this doctrine could have no effect whatever. Indeed, comma, it would amount to nothing but a verbal proposition. Three, far below, comma, the little stream of the odor formed over the rocks. When the day returned, comma, the professor, the artist, comma, and I rode to within a hundred yards of the shore. Five, proceeding into the interior of India, comma, they passed through Belgam. Six, if loring is defeated in the sixth district, comma, it can be borne. In number three the reader naturally enunciates the little stream of the odor, as in the objective case after below. But there he comes to a predicate which compels him to go back and read differently. In number four it appears that the day returned the professor, and then the artist and I rode, etc. End quote. All clauses should generally be isolated by commas, where, however, the connection is very close or the clause is very short, no point may be necessary. But his pride is greater than his ignorance, and what he wants in knowledge he supplies by sufficiency. A man of polite imagination can converse with a picture, and find an agreeable companion in a statue. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. The prince, his father being dead, succeeded. To confess the truth I was much at fault, as the heart panteth after the water brooks so panteth my soul after thee. Where the bee sucks, there suck I. His father dying, he succeeded to the estate. The little that is known, and the circumstances that little is known, must be considered as honorable to him. The comma is used before and after a phrase when coordinating and not restrictive. The jury, having retired for half an hour, brought in a verdict. The stranger, unwilling to obtrude himself on our notice, left in the morning. Rome, the city of the emperors, became the city of the popes. His stories, which made everybody laugh, were often made to order. He did not come, which I greatly regret. The younger, who was yet a boy, had nothing striking in his appearance. They passed the cup to the stranger, who drank heartily. Peace at any price, which these orators seem to advocate, means war at any cost. Sailors, who are generally superstitious, say it is unlucky to embark on Friday. Adverbs and short phrases, when they break the connection, should be between commas. Some of the most common words and phrases so used are the following. Also, to, there, indeed, perhaps, surely, moreover, likewise, however, finally, namely, therefore, apparently, meanwhile, consequently unquestionably, accordingly, not withstanding, in truth, in fact, in short, in general, in reality. No doubt, of course, as it were, at all events, to be brief, to be sure, now and then, on the contrary, in a word, by chance, in that case, in the meantime, for the most part. History, in a word, is replete with moral lessons. As an orator, however, he was not great. There is, remember, a limit at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue. Our civilization, therefore, is not an unmixed good. This, I grant you, is not of great importance. If, however, the adverb does not break the connection but readily coalesces with the rest of the sentence, the commas are omitted. Morning will come at last, however dark the night may be. We then proceeded on our way. Our civilization is, therefore, not an unmixed good. Patience, I say. Your mind, perhaps, may change. Adverbial phrases and clauses beginning a sentence are set off by commas. In truth, I could not tell. To sum up, the matter is this. Everything being ready, they set out. By looking a little deeper, the reason will be found. Finally, let me sum up the argument. If the premises were admitted, I should deny the conclusion. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. Words used in appositions should be isolated by commas. Newton, the great mathematician, was very modest. And he, their prince, shall rank among my peers. In such sentences, however, as the mathematician Newton was very modest, and the emperor Napoleon was a great soldier, commas are not used. The name or designation of a person addressed is isolated by commas. It touches you, my lord, as well as me. John, come here. Mr. President, my object is peace. Tell me, boy, where do you live? Yes, sir, I will do as you say. Mr. Brown, what is your number? Pairs of words. Old and young, rich and poor, wise and foolish, were involved. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and heart to this vote. Interest and ambition, honor and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transactions. A restrictive clause is not separated by a comma from the noun. Everyone must love a boy who, that, is attentive and docile. He preaches sublimely, who, that, lives a holy life. The things which, that, are seen are temporal. A king, depending on the support of his subjects, cannot rashly go to war. The sailor, who, that, is not superstitious, will embark any day. The comma is used after adjectives, nouns, and verbs in sentences like the following. Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoils shrunk to this little measure? He fills, he bounds, connects, and equals all. True to the enraptured heart, and ear, and eye, teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody. Footnote Some writers omit the comma in cases where the conjunction is used. But as the conjunction is generally employed in such cases for emphasis, commas ought to be used. Although where the words are very closely connected, or where they constitute a clause in the midst of a long sentence, they may be omitted. Bigelow's Handbook of Punctuation End Footnote He rewarded his friends, chastised his foes, set justice on her seat, and made his conquest secure. The comma is used to separate adjectives in opposition, but closely connected. Though deep, yet clear, though gentle, yet not dull. Liberal, not lavish, is kind nature's hand. Though black, yet comely, and though rash, benign. After a nominative where the verb is understood, to err is human, to forgive divine. A wise man seeks to shine in himself, a fool in others. Conversation makes a ready man, writing an exact man, reading a full man. A long subject is often separated from the predicate by a comma. Anyone that refuses to earn an honest livelihood is not an object of charity. The circumstance of his being unprepared to adopt immediate and decisive measures was represented to the government, that he had persistently disregarded every warning and persevered in his reckless course, had not yet undermined his credit with his dupes, that the work of forming and perfecting the character is difficult is generally allowed. In a series of adjectives that precede their noun, a comma is placed after each except the last. There usage omits the point. A beautiful, tall, willowy, sprightly girl. A quick, brilliant, studious, learned man. Footnote, this usage violates one of the fundamental principles of punctuation. It indicates very improperly that the noun man is more closely connected with learned than with the other adjectives. A comma is placed between short members of compound sentences, connected by and, but, for, nor, or, because, whereas, that, expressing purpose, so that, in order that, and other conjunctions. Be virtuous, that you may be respected. Love not sleep, lest you come to poverty. Man proposes, but God disposes. A comma must not be placed before that except when it is equivalent to in order that. He says that he will be here. A comma must not be placed before and when it connects two words only. Time and tide wait for no man. A rich and prosperous people. Plain and honest truth wants no artificial covering. A comma is sometimes necessary to prevent ambiguity. He who pursues pleasure only defeats the object of his creation. Without a comma before or after only, the meaning of this sentence is doubtful. The following sentences presents some miscellaneous examples of the use of the comma by writers on punctuation. Industry, as well as genius, is essential to the production of great works. Prosperity is secured to a state, not by the acquisition of territorial riches, but by the encouragement of industry. Your manners are affable, and, for the most part, pleasing. Footnote, many writers would omit the last two commas in this sentence. However fairly a bad man may appear to act, we distrust him. Why this is rank and justice. Well, follow the dictates of your inclination. The comma may be omitted in the case of two, also, therefore, and perhaps, when introduced so as not to interfere with the harmonious flow of the period. And particularly when the sentence is short. Footnote, the commas before and after particularly are hardly necessary. End footnote. Robert Horton, M.D., FRS. To those who labor, sleep is doubly pleasant. Sleep is doubly pleasant to those who labor. Those who persevere succeed. To be overlooked, slighted, and neglected. To be misunderstood, misrepresented, and slandered. To be trampled underfoot by the envious, the ignorant, and the vile. To be crushed by foes and to be distrusted and betrayed even by friends. Such is too often the fate of genius. She is tall, though not so handsome as her sister. Verily, verily, I say unto you. Whatever is, is right. What is foreordained to be, will be. The Emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts. Augustus, the Emperor, was a patron of the fine arts. United we stand, divided we fall. God said, Let there be light. July 21, 1881. St. Garfield was shot Saturday morning, July 2, 1881. He died Monday night, September 19, 1881. I am, sir, very respectfully your obedient servant, John Jones. New York, August, 1881. Room 20, Equitable Building, Broadway, New York. When you are in doubt as to the propriety of inserting commas, omit them. It is better to have too few than too many. Quackenbos, The Semicolon. Reasons are preceded by semicolons. Economy is no disgrace, for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a great deal. Clauses in opposition are separated by a semicolon when the second is introduced by an adversitive. Causes swim at the surface, but pearls lie at the bottom. Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord, but they that deal truly are His delight. Without the adversitive, the colon is to be preferred. Prosperity showeth vice. Adversity virtue. The great divisions of a sentence must be pointed with a semicolon when the minor divisions are pointed with commas. Myths should be the embroidery of conversation, not the web. And wit the ornament of the mind, not the furniture. The things enumerated must be separated by semicolons when the annunciation of particulars is preceded by a colon. The value of a maxim depends on four things. The correctness of the principle it embodies, the subject to which it relates, the extent of its application, and the ease with which it may be practically carried out. When as introduces an example it is preceded by a semicolon. When several successive clauses have a common connection with a preceding or following clause they are separated by semicolons. As children, as they gambled on the beach, reapers, as they gathered the harvest, mowers, as they rested from using the scythe, as they busied themselves about the household, were victims to an enemy who disappeared the moment a blow was struck. Reason as we may it is impossible not to read in such a fate much that we know not how to interpret. Much a provocation to cruel deeds and deep resentment. Much of apology for wrong and perfidy. Much of doubt and misgiving as to the past. Much of painful recollections. Much of dark foreboding. Philosophers assert that nature is unlimited, that her treasures are endless, that the increase of knowledge will never cease. The colon. This point is less used now than formerly. Its place is supplied by the period, the semicolon, or the dash, and sometimes even by the comma. The colon is used very differently by different writers. He was heard to say, I have done with this world. Some writers would put a colon, some a comma, after say. When the quoted passage is brought in without any introductory word, if short, says Quackenbos, it is generally preceded by a comma, if long by a colon, as a simpleton meeting a philosopher asked him what affords wise men the greatest pleasure. Turning on his heel, the sage replied, to get rid of fools. Formal enumerations of particulars and direct quotations, when introduced by such phrases as, in these words, as follows, the following, namely, this, these, thus, etc., are properly preceded by a colon. We hold these truths to be self-evident. That all men are created equal, that they are endowed by the Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Lord Bacon has summed up the whole matter in the following words. A little philosophy inclineth men's minds to atheism. But depth and philosophy bringeth men's minds to religion. The human family is composed of five races. First the Caucasian, second the Mongolian, third the, etc. All were attentive to the godlike man when from his lofty couch he thus began. Great Queen, etc., Dryden, when the quotation or other matter begins a new paragraph the colon is by many writers followed with a dash, as the cloth being removed the President rose and said, Ladies and gentlemen, we are, etc. The colon is used to mark the greater breaks in sentences when the lesser breaks are marked by semicolons. You have called yourself an atom in the universe. You have said that you are but an insect in the solar blaze. Is your present pride consistent with these professions? A clause is either independent or dependent, independent if it forms an assertion by itself, dependent if it enters into some other clause with the value of a part of speech. A colon is sometimes used instead of a period to separate two short sentences which are closely connected. Never flatter people. Leave that to such as mean to betray them. Some things we can, and others we cannot do. We can walk, but we cannot fly. The period. Complete sentences are always followed either by a period or by an exclamation or an interrogation point. Footnote The only exception to this rule is the occasional use of the colon to separate two short sentences that are closely connected. One footnote The period is also used after abbreviations as R. D. Van Nostrand St. Louis, Missouri J. N. O. B. Morris M. D. FRS London, England J. A. S. W. Wallach, Jr. New York City, New York J. A. S. B. Roberts Elocutionist Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Interrogation point This point is used after questions put by the writer and after questions reported directly. What can I do for you? Where are you going? What do you say? cried the general. The child still lives? It should not be used when the question is reported indirectly. He asked me where I was going. The judge asked the witness if he believed the man to be guilty. Exclamation point This mark is placed after interjections, after sentences and clauses of sentences of passionate import, and after solemn invocations and addresses. Zounds! The man's in earnest! Pasha! What can we do? Ba! What's that to me? Indeed, then I must look to it. Look, my lord, it comes! Rest, rest, perturbed spirit! O heat, dry up my brains! Dear-made, kind sister, sweet Ophelia! While in this part of the country I once more revisited, and alas with what melancholy presentiments, the home of my youth, O Rose of May! O, from this time forth my thoughts be bloody or be nothing worth! O heavens, die two months ago, and not forgotten yet! Night, sable goddess, from her ebb and throne in railess majesty now stretches forth her leaden scepter, or a slumbering world! Silence, how dead! And darkness, how profound! Young! Hail, holy light! Offspring of heaven just born! Milton! But thou, O hope, with eyes so fair, what was thy delighted measure? Collins! It will be observed that the interjection, O, is an exception to the rule. It is often followed by a comma, but never by an exclamation point. An exclamation point sometimes gives the same words quite another meaning. The difference between what's that and what's that is obvious. The dash. Cobbett did not favor the use of this mark, as we see from the following. Let me caution you against the use of what, by some, is called the dash. The dash is a stroke along the line, thus I am rich, I was poor, I shall be poor again. This is wild work indeed. Who is to know what is intended by these dashes? Those who have thought proper, like Mr. Lindley Murray, to place the dash amongst the grammatical points ought to give us some rule relative to its different longitudinal dimensions in different cases. The inch, the three-quarter inch, the half inch, the quarter inch, these would be something determinate. But the dash, without measure, must be a perilous thing for the young grammarian to handle. In short, the dash is a cover for ignorance as to the use of points, and it can answer no other purpose. This is one of the few instances in which Cobbett was wrong. The dash is the proper point with which to mark an unexpected or emphatic pause, or a sudden break or transition. It is very often preceded by another point. And wheat zillopoctally, a sweet name to roll under one's tongue, for how many years has this venerable war-god blinked in the noonday's sun. Crowds gathered about the newspaper bulletins, recalling the feverish scenes that occurred when the President's life was thought to be hanging by a thread. Wouldn't it be too bad, said one, if, after all, no, I won't allow myself to think of it. Was there ever? But I scorned to boast. You are? No, I'll not tell you what you are. He suffered. But his pangs are o'er, enjoyed, but his delights are fled. Had friends? His friends are now no more. And foes? His foes are dead. Montgomery, Greece, Carthage, Rome. Where are they? He chasens, but he chasens to save. Dashes are much used where parentheses were formerly employed. In the days of Tweed the expression to divide fair, forcible, if not grammatical, acquire much currency. In truth the character of the great chief was depicted two thousand five hundred years before his birth, and depicted, such as the power of genius, in colors which will be fresh as many years after his death, to render the constitution perpetual, which God granted may be. It is necessary that its benefits should be practically felt by all parts of the country. Paranthosis This mark is comparatively little used nowadays. The dash is preferred probably because it disfigures the page less. The office of the parenthesis is to isolate a phrase which is merely incidental, and which might be omitted without detriment to the grammatical construction. Know then this truth. Enough for man to know. Virtue alone is happiness below. The bliss of man, could pride that blessing find, is not to act or think beyond mankind. Brackets This mark is used principally to enclose words improperly omitted by the writer, or words introduced for the purpose of explanation or to correct an error. The bracket is often used in this book. The apostrophe This point is used to denote the omission of letters and sometimes of figures as j-a-n apostrophe y, apostrophe 81, i apostrophe ve for i have, y-o-u apostrophe l-l for you will, apostrophe t-i-s for it is, d-o-n apostrophe t for do not, c-a-n apostrophe t for cannot. It was in the year 93, the spirit of 76. It was in the years 1812, 13, and 14. Also to denote the possessive case as Brown's house, the king's command, Moses' staff, your conscience's sake, the boy's garden. Also with s to denote the plural of letters, figures and signs as cross your t's, dot your i's, and mind your p's and q's, make your fives better, and take out the x's, capitals. A capital letter should begin every sentence, every line of verse, and every direct quotation. All names of the deity, of Jesus Christ, of the Trinity, and of the Virgin Mary must begin with a capital. Pronouns are usually capitalized when they refer to the deity. Proper names, and nouns and adjectives formed from proper names, names of streets, of the months, of the days of the week, and of the holidays, are capitalized. Titles of nobility and of high office, when used to designate particular persons are capitalized, as the Earl of Dunraven, the Mayor of Boston, the Baron Replied, the Cardinal Presided, the Paragraph. In writing for the press, the division of matter into paragraphs is often quite arbitrary. In letter writing, on the contrary, the several topics treated of should, as a rule, be isolated by paragraph divisions. These divisions give one's letters a shapely appearance that they otherwise never have. Purchase This word is much preferred to its synonym by. By that class of people who prefer the word reside to live, procure to get, inaugurate to begin, and so on. They are generally of those who are great in pretense, and who would be greater still if they were to pretend to all they have to pretend to. Purpose Refer to propose Quantity This word is often improperly used for number. Quantity should be used in speaking of what is measured or weighed, number of what is counted, examples, what quantity of apples have you, and what number of pineapples. Delaware produces a large quantity of peaches and a large number of melons. Quit This word means properly to leave, to go away from, to forsake, as avant. Quit my sight. This is the only sense in which the English use it. In America it is generally used in the sense of to leave off, to stop, as quit your nonsense, quit laughing, quit your noise, he has quit smoking, and so on. Quite This word originally meant completely, perfectly, totally, entirely, fully. And this is the sense in which it was used by the early writers of English. It is now often used in the sense of rather, as it is quite warm, she is quite tall, he is quite proficient. Sometimes it is incorrectly used in the sense of considerable, as quite an amount, quite a number, quite a fortune. Quite according to good modern usage may qualify an adjective, but not a noun. She is quite the lady is a vile phrase, meaning she is very or quite ladylike. Railroad depot Few things are more offensive to fastidious ears than to hear a railway station called a depot. A depot is properly a place where goods or stores of any kind are kept, and the places at which the trains of a railroad, or better, railway, stop for passengers, or the points from which they start and which they arrive are, properly, the stations. Railway The English refer this word to railroad. Raise the rent. An expression incorrectly used for increase the rent. Rarely It is no uncommon thing to see this adverb improperly used in such sentences as, it is very rarely that the puppets of the romancer assume, etc., Appleton's Journal, February 1881, page 177. But, says the defender of this phraseology, rarely qualifies a verb, the verb to be. Not at all. The sentence, if written out in full, would be, it is a very rare thing that, etc., or the circumstances a very rare one that, etc., or, it is a very rare occurrence that, etc. To those who contend for, it is very rarely that, etc., I would say it is very sadly that persons of culture will write and then defend, or rather try to defend, such grammar. Ratiacinate Refer to, effectuate, real. This adjective is often vulgarly used in the sense of the adverb very, thus real nice, real pretty, real angry, real cute, and so on. Recommend This word, which means to commend or praise to another, to declare worthy of esteem, trust or favor, is sometimes put to strange uses. Example Resolved That the taxpayers of the county be recommended to meet, etc. What the resolving gentleman meant was, that the taxpayers should be counseled to meet. Redundancy Refer to, pleonasm, reliable. This is a modern word, which is often met with, but it is not used by our careful writers. They prefer its synonym trustworthy, and argue that, in consequence of being ill-formed, reliable cannot possibly have the signification in which it is used. Remainder Refer to, balance, rendition. This word is much misused for rendering. Example The excellence of Mr. Gilbert's rendition of certain characters, Sir Peter and Sir Antony, for instance, is not equaled, etc. Rendition means the act of yielding possession, surrender, as the rendition of a town or fortress. The sentence above should read the excellence of Mr. Gilbert's rendering, etc. Rendition is also sometimes improperly used for performance. Reply Refer to, answer, reputation. Refer to, character. Reside A big word that Mr. would be uses where Mr. is uses the little word live. Residence In speaking of a man's domicile, it is not only in better taste but more correct to use the term house than residence. A man has a residence in New York, when he has lived here long enough to have the right to exercise the franchise here. And he may have a house in Fifth Avenue where he lives. People who are live in houses, people who would be reside in residences. The former buy things, the latter purchase them. Rest Refer to, balance. Restive Some of the dictionaries, Richard Grant White and some other writers contend that this word, when properly used, means unwilling to go, standing still stubbornly, obstinate, stubborn, and nothing else. In combating this opinion, Fitz Ward Hall says very few instances I apprehend can be produced from our literature of this use of rested. Webster gives impatient, uneasy as a second meaning, and this is the sense in which the word is nearly always used. Retire It is only the overnice who use retire in the sense of go to bed. Reverent Honorable Many persons are in doubt whether they should, or should not, put the before these adjectives. Emphatically, yes, they should. See Words and Their Uses by Richard Grant White for a full discussion of the question. Also Good English by Edward S. Gould. Rhetoric The art which has for its object the rendering of language effective is called rhetoric. Without some study of the art of composition, no one can expect to write well, or to judge the literary work of others. True ease in writing comes from art, not chance. As those move easiest to have learned to dance. Ride Drive Fashion Both in England and in this country says that we must always use the second of these words when we speak of going out in a carriage, although ride means, according to all the lexicographers, to be carried on a horse or other animal, or in any kind of vehicle or carriage. Write Singularly enough, this word is made by some people to do service for art, in duty bound, under obligation to. Thus, you had a right to tell me, meaning you should have told me. The colonists contended that they had no right to pay taxes, meaning they were under no obligation to pay taxes. In other words, that it was unjust to tax them. Write Here The expressions right here and right there are Americanisms, correctly, just here, and just there. Rolling The use of this participle adjective in the sense of undulating is said to be an Americanism. Whether an Americanism or not, it would seem to be quite unobjectionable. Rubbers This word, in common with gums and artyx, is often in defiance of good taste, used for overshoes. Sabbath This term was first used in English for Sunday, or Lord's Day, by the Puritans. Nowadays it is little used in this sense. The word to use is Sunday. Sarcasm Vain says that sarcasm is vituperation softened in the outward expression by the arts and figures of disguise, epigram, innuendo, irony, and embellished with the figures of illustration. Crabb says that sarcasm is the indulgence only of personal resentment and is never justifiable. Satire The holding up to ridicule of the follies and weaknesses of mankind, by way of rebuke, is called satire. Satire is general rather than individual, its object being the reformation of abuses. A lampoon, which has been defined as a personal satire, attacks the individual rather than his fault, and is intended to injure rather than to reform. Said Sheridan Satires and lampoons on particular people circulate more by giving copies in confidence to the friends of the parties than by printing them. Saw The imperfect tense of the verb to see is carelessly used by good writers and speakers when they should use the perfect. Thus I never saw anything like it before, when the meaning intended is, I have never, in all my life, seen anything like it before, until now. We say properly I never saw anything like it when I was in Paris, but when the period of time referred to extends to the time when the statement is made it must be have seen. Like mistakes are made in the use of other verbs, but they are hardly as common. Yet we often hear such expressions as, I was never in Philadelphia. I never went to the theatre in my life, instead of have been in Philadelphia and have gone to the theatre. Section The use of this word for region, neighborhood, vicinity, part of the town or country is said to be a Westernism. A section is a division of the public lands containing 640 acres. Seam Appear Graham, in his English synonyms, says of these two words, What seems is in the mind. What appears is external. Things appear as they present themselves to the eye. They seem as they are represented to the mind. Things appear good or bad as far as we can judge by our senses. Things seem right or wrong as we determine by reflection. Perception and sensation have to do with appearing. Reflection and comparison with seeming. When things are not what they appear, our senses are deceived. When things are not what they seem, our judgment is at fault. No man had ever a greater power over himself, or was less the man he seemed to be, which shortly after appeared to everybody, when he cared less to keep on the mask. Clarendon Seldom or Ever This phrase should be seldom if ever, or seldom or never. Seraphim This is the plural of seraph, one of the seraphim. To the cherubim and seraphim continually do cry, refer to cherubim. Set Sit The former of these two verbs is often incorrectly used for the latter. To set Imperfect tense Set Participals setting Set To sit Imperfect tense Sat Participals sitting Sat To set means to put to place to plant. To put in any place, condition, state, or posture. We say to set about, to set against, to set out, to set going, to set apart, to set aside, to set down, to put in writing. To sit means to rest on the lower part of the body, to repose on a seat, to perch, as a bird, etc. We say sit up, in other words rise from lying to sitting. We will sit up, in other words will not go to bed. Sit down, in other words place yourself on a seat. We sit a horse and we sit for a portrait. Garments sit well or otherwise. Congress sits, so does a court. I have sat up long enough. I have set it on the table. We set down figures, but we sit down on the ground. We set a hand, and a hand sits on eggs. We should say therefore, as cross as a sitting, not a setting, hen. End of Section 8, Recording by Bill Borst.