 Preface of When Nights Were Bold This book is in no degree an attempt to relate the involved and intricate history of the Middle Ages. Its plan is, rather, to present pictures of the manner of life and habits of thought of the people who lived between the 8th and 15th centuries. Our writings and our everyday conversation are full of their phrases and of illusions to their ideas. Many of our thoughts and feelings and instincts of our very follies and superstitions have descended to us from them. To become better acquainted with them is to explain ourselves. In selecting from the enormous amount of material, I have sought to choose those customs which were most characteristic of the times, and which have made the strongest impression upon the life of today, describing each custom when at its height, rather than tracing its development and history. I hope that the volume will be found sufficiently full to serve as a work of reference and sufficiently interesting to win its way as a book of general reading. Ava March Tappan, Worcester, Massachusetts End of Preface Chapter 1 of When Nights Were Bold This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For further information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Glenn Simonson When Nights Were Bold By Ava March Tappan Chapter 1 Page, Squire, and Knight It must have been a sight well worth seeing when a knight mounted his horse and galloped away from a castle. Of course his armor was polished and shining, and, as Lowell says of Sir Lawnful, he made mourn through the darksome gate. The children of the castle especially must have watched him with the greatest interest. The girls looked wistfully at the scarf or glove on his helmet, each one hoping that he who would someday wear her colors would be the bravest man that ever drew a sword. As for the boys, they could hardly wait for the day to come when they, too, could don glittering armor and sally forth into the world in quest of adventures. Even the youngest of these children knew that a boy must pass through long years of training before he could become a knight. This began when he was a small child, perhaps not more than seven years old. It was not the custom for the son of a noble to be brought up in the home of his father. He was sent for his education and training to the castle of some lord of higher rank or greater reputation, sometimes to the court of the king. He was taught to look with the utmost respect upon the man who trained him to be a knight, to reverence him as a father, and to behave toward him with humility and meekness. Even if the time ever came when they were fighting on opposite sides, the foster son must never harm the man whose castle had been his home. In those days of warfare and bloodshed, the king himself might well be glad to have as devoted supporters and friends a band of young men who had been carefully trained in the practice of arms. It is no wonder that kings and nobles looked upon it as a privilege to receive these boys into their castles. Indeed, when their fathers were inclined to keep them at home, the king sometimes demanded that they be sent to him. The boys of the days of knighthood were not so very different from those of today, and many of their amusements were the same as now. They had various games of ball, they played marbles, they seesawed, and walked on stilts, much as if they belonged to the 20th century. Of course, they played at being knights, just as boys today play at being merchants or manufacturers. There is an old picture of some pages, as these boys were called, playing that two toy knights mounted on wooden horses are having a contest. The two horses are pushed toward each other, and if either knight is struck by the spear of the other and thrust out of his place, he is vanquished. This was only play, and there were many things that a page must learn and learn thoroughly before he was 14 or 15. How much of book learning was given him is not known. Probably the custom differed in different places. In most cases, it could not have been a great amount, perhaps only a little reading, and it seems to have been regarded as no disgrace to a knight if he did not even know his letters. He must learn to sing, however, and to play his accompaniments on the harp, and he must play backgammon and chess, for these games were looked upon as accomplishments which no gentleman could be without. He was taught to say his prayers and to have respect for the church and religion. It was especially impressed upon him that he must be serviceable, that is, he must wait upon the ladies and lords of the castle. He must run on errands for them, and he must do their bidding in all things, for it was an honor to him to be permitted to serve them. A page who is disobedient would have been scorned and despised by the other pages, for they all hoped to become knights, and no true knight would refuse to obey the commands of his lord or the gentler behests of his lady love. Such a one would have been looked upon as no knight, indeed, but rather as a rude, boorish churl. The page, or valet, or d'amoiseau, or bhabé, as he was also called, must always be gentle and polite, for the knight was an ideal gentleman, and the gentleman must never fail in courtesy. There is a quaint little volume called the bhabé's book, which tells just how a boy who wished to become a knight was expected to behave. When he entered the room of his lord, he must greet all modestly, with a godspeed you, and he must kneel on one knee before his lord. If his lord spoke to him, he must make an obeisance before answering. He must not lean against a post or handle things, but stand quietly, listen to what was said, and speak when he was spoken to. When the meal was prepared, he must bring water for hand-washing, presenting at first to his lord, and must hold a towel ready for him to use, a most desirable part of the preparation for a meal, as it was the custom for two persons to use the same trencher, or wooden plate, and forks were not in use. When the time came for the page himself to eat, he must not lean upon the table or soil the cloth, or throw any bones upon the floor. If he chanced to use the same trencher with anyone of higher rank than he, he must take meat from the trencher first, but he must be especially careful not to take the best piece. Thus it was that the indoor life of the page passed. Most of his indoor teaching was given him by the ladies of the castle. It was they who taught him to choose a lady love, for whose sake he was to be ever brave and pure and modest. The story is told of one shy little page at the court of France, that when one of the court ladies asked whom he loved best, he replied, My lady mother first, and after her my sister. That is not what I mean, said the lady. Tell me, who is your lady love in chivalry? The little fellow admitted that he had none. After a severe lecture because he was so unshivalric, he chose a little girl of his own age. She is a pretty little girl, replied the lady, but she cannot advise you or help you on as a knight. You must choose some lady of noble birth, who can give you counsel and aid. Then you must do everything in your power to please her. You must be courteous and humble, and strive with all your might to win her favor. Out of doors, too, the page had much to learn. If his lord went to the field of battle, the page went with him to help him in every way that a boy could. He was in no danger, for a knight who attacked a page would have been shamed and disgraced. As for riding, of course he had not been allowed to reach the age of seven without knowing how to sit on a horse. But now riding became a matter of business. It was not a mere canter on a pony whenever he took a fancy. It was a careful training, for he must practice leaping over ditches and walls. He must be able to spring into the saddle without touching the stirrup, and, in short, he must learn to be as perfectly at home on the back of a horse as on his own feet. Light weapons were provided for him, and he must learn how to use sword and lance and bow, and how to swim and box and fence. He must meet the other boys of the castle in mock contests. These were carefully watched by the elders, who were eager to see whether or not the son of some valiant knight bade fair to maintain the reputation of his father. A most important part of the boy's instruction was hunting, or the mystery of the woods and hawking, or the mystery of the rivers, so-called because it was often pursued on the open banks of streams. The page who understood hawking had conquered a most complicated branch of his education. He had to learn the different kinds of falcons, how to train the birds to throw themselves upon their prey, how to feed them, and what calls to use with them. There was a rule for every act. For instance, there was only one way in which a hawk might be properly carried. The master's arm must be held parallel with his body, but not touching it, and the forearm must be held out at a right angle as a perch for the bird. A man who would practice the mystery of the rivers, and did not carry his falcon in the approved fashion, would have been the laughing stock of his companions. Even pages had their own falcons, and a taste for hunting and hawking was looked upon as a mark of noble blood. When a page was sent to bear a letter, he sometimes carried his falcon on his wrist for company on the way. There were possible dangers on every journey, but I fancy that the page was always glad to be sent with a message, especially if it was a pleasant one, for then he was sure of a warm welcome and generous gifts from the happy recipient. During the seven or eight years that he was a page, the boy was always looking forward to the time when he would become a squire, for this was the next step toward knighthood. Now that he had grown older and stronger, more service was required of him, and his exercises became more severe. Within the castle he continued to serve at the table, but he was now privileged to present the first or principal cup of wine. He still brought water for the hand washing, and he carved the meat. He never sat at the same table with his lord. Indeed, in many places, a knight would not permit his own son to eat with him until he too had been made a knight. In Chaucer's description of a squire, he makes it clear that the young man of twenty years was a brave young fellow who had considerable experience in warfare, but purties he was, lowly inservisable, and carf before in his fader at the table. After the meal was over, squires and pages together cleared the hall for dancing, or they brought tables for checkers, or for the heavy chessboards then in use. Whatever amusement was on foot, the squire was permitted to share. Indeed, throughout all the training of a boy for knighthood, it was never forgotten that he must be taught to make himself as agreeable within the castle as he was expected to be courageous without its walls. An important part of his education was practice in composing love songs. He was expected, of course, to have his lady love, for whom he must be ready to endure all hardships and meet all dangers. He continued the exercises of his days as a page, but he gave much more time to them. He learned to leap farther, to run longer distances, to climb jagged cliffs almost perpendicular as the walls of the cities which he hoped someday to be able to aid in capturing. He learned to bear hunger and thirst and heat and cold, and to keep himself awake through long nights of watching. His weapons were now made larger and heavier. He was taught to wield the great battle axe, to endure the weight of armor, and to move about in it easily. A battle in the Middle Ages was more like a large number of duels than a contest between bodies of troops, and an exceedingly good preparation for this kind of warfare was an exercise known as the contain. For this a post was set in the ground on top of which was a cross-piece that would whirl around at a touch. From one end of the cross-piece hung a board and from the other a sand-bag. The squire must ride up to this at full tilt and strike the board with his lance, but woe to him who was slow or clumsy. For quick as a flash the cross-piece whirled about and he was struck a substantial blow by the sand-bag. Often the figure of a knight was used, so hung that unless the young squire was skillful enough to strike it on the breast it struck him, and the wooden knight never missed his stroke. Each squire in turn became squire of the body, that is, he was the closest attendant of his lord. When his master went to the field of battle the helmet was often entrusted to a page, but to carry the shield and armor was the task of the squire of the body. A much more difficult part of his duty was to array the knight in his armor with all its complicated fastenings. Every knight had his pen and if he had given long service and had many followers the point or points of his pen and were cut off leaving a square banner. He was then called a bannerette. Both bannerette and baron were privileged to act as commanders of little armies of their own. They were under the king, but each one had his own war cry and called his men together under his own standard. Whether the squire served bannerette or baron or knight it was his honorable task to bear the banner or pen and. He needed to have his wits about him, for if the knight dropped his weapon he must be ready to pass him a fresh one. If the knight was unhorsed the squire must catch his horse if necessary and help him to mount and if the horse itself was wounded seriously the squire must have another one ready or must bring forward his own. If the knight took a prisoner he was passed over into the charge of the squire that the knight might be left free for further contests. If the knight was getting the worst of the fight or was attacked by several at once the squire must come to his aid. If he was taken prisoner the squire must rescue him if possible. If he was wounded must carry him to a place of safety and if he was killed it was the sad duty of the squire to see that he received an honorable burial. Every year brought the time nearer when the squire was to be made a knight. The one thing necessary to bring this about was for the king or some other knight to give him the accolade that is a blow on his shoulder or the back of his neck as he knelt to receive it. This was usually followed by the words, in the name of God, of Saint Michael, and of Saint George, I dub thee knight, be brave, ready, and loyal. Sometimes all that was said was, be a good knight. When a number of squires were to be made knights, as often happened just before or just after a battle, the ceremony was no more complicated than this. Sometimes on the very battlefield when a squire had done some praiseworthy deed of bravery he was knighted in this simple and direct fashion. When there was plenty of time however the process was much longer. First the hair of the candidate was cut. To give up one's hair was looked upon as a mark of devotion of one's self to God. Generally the cutting of a single lock was regarded as sufficient, but sometimes the head was shaved in the fashion of the tonsure of the priest. The candidate was put into a bath and then into a bed. Every part of the ceremony had a meaning and these acts signified first purity and then the rest which he who had been pure would enjoy in paradise. He was now supposed to be cleansed from all sins of his previous life and to symbolize this he was arrayed in a white shirt or long tunic. Over it a red garment with long sleeves and a hood was thrown to indicate that he was ready to shed his blood in the service of God. And finally a close black coat was put upon him to remind him of the death which all must meet. After 24 hours of fasting he spent a night in a church keeping what was called the vigil of arms that is kneeling by his armor praying and meditating. When the sun rose he made his confession to a priest, heard mass, and partook of the holy sacrament. This was his final preparation. Later in the day he and his friends went to the church or the castle hall. The young man gave his sword to the priest and the priest laid it upon the altar praying that God would bless it and that it might defend the church and protect widows and orphans. The candidate took a solemn oath that it should be used for these purposes. The priest then returned the sword to him and made a little address on the duties that lay before him in his new life and reminded him of the happiness that awaited him who performed these duties with faithfulness and zeal. Now came the moment for which everyone was waiting. The young man went forward to the Lord who was to make him a knight and knelt before him with clasped hands. The Lord questioned him somewhat in this wise. Why do you wish to be made a knight? Is it with the hope of gaining treasure? Is it that man may show you honor? On the young man's declaring that he had no such wishes, both knights and ladies united in arming him. The golden spurs came first, then the other pieces of armor and last of all the sword. The Lord then gave him the accolade, sometimes a light touch with the sword on the shoulder or the nape of the neck and sometimes a hearty blow with a hand or even the clenched fist. This was followed by the charge to be brave, ready and loyal. The older knights drew their swords and repeated the vows which they had taken on entering chivalry and the priest pronounced the blessing of the church upon one and all. So it was that in the ceremony of making a knight, the church, the soldier, and the woman had each a share. The assembly then passed out into the open air. The horse of the newly made knight stood waiting. He sprang upon its back and unless he wished to disgrace his new honors he must not touch the stirrup He wrote about the court, prancing and caracoling, brandishing his glittering sword, and showing how well he knew the use of his lance. The servants and minstrels of the castle had waited patiently, and now they had their share in the rejoicings. For to prove his gratitude for receiving the noble gift of knighthood, the young knight made as generous a gift to each one as his purse would permit. End of Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Of When Knights Were Bold This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information, or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Evan Barnes When Knights Were Bold By Ava March Tappan Chapter 2 The Knight's Arms and Armor The chief weapons used by knights were the lance and the sword, and therefore they needed especially some sort of protection against the thrust of a lance and the stroke of a sword. Every knight wore a helmet, for nothing would please his enemy better than to strike a mighty blow that would cleave his head from his crown to the breastbone. There were many sorts of helmets. Some were shaped like closely fitting hoods, covering the back of the head, but leaving the face unprotected. Some were cone shaped and had visors that could be lifted, and others were much like broad brimmed hats. Some had a piece of iron called a nasal, which extended down over the forehead and nose. And some covered the whole head like a kettle, and had slits through which the knight might peer out at his enemy, or through which the enemy might sometimes thrust the point of a spear. The helmet was not always plain by any means, for it was often beautifully ornamented with silver or gold. It was heavy enough at best, but the warrior bold never objected to increasing its weight by adding as a crest a little image of an eagle or a lion or a dragon to suggest to his enemy what a brave man he was. The warrior must guard his heart as well as his head, and he always wore some sort of armor to protect his body. For a long while this was in the form of a short tunic or shirt called a halberk. With it, chauses or bridges were worn. At the neck a hood of mail was joined to the halberk, or havergen, which served to protect the back of the head. In the earlier times the halberk was made of leather or cloth, and was often thickly wadded and quilted. Indeed, the leather halberks never went entirely out of use so long as armor was worn. Sometimes they were really handsome, for the leather was stamped, colored, and gilded in elaborate patterns. They were cheap and convenient, but when an enemy was galloping up to a man and thrusting a lance at his heart with full force, even the thickest leather was small protection. It occurred to someone with an inventive mind that if rings of metal were only sewed upon this tunic, it would not be so easy for either lance or sword to reach the heart of a man. The rings were sewed on in rows, and before long larger rings were sewed over them. Then someone said to himself, why sew the rings on leather or cloth? Why not interlace them in a network? And soon knights were setting forth to battle with coats of mail made of interlaced rings. A coat of this kind was far less clumsy and heavy than a leather tunic. Moreover, it could be rolled up into so small a bundle that it could be carried on the back of a saddle. This was a fairly good protection against sword and spear, and probably the knights who first went out to battle with new and shining ring or chain armor felt that nothing better could ever be invented. But there were two other weapons whose blow was only made more dangerous by this armor. These were the battle axe and the heavy battle hammer or martel. The head of the hammer sometimes weighed 20 pounds, and with a strong man to wield it with both hands it became a terrible weapon. The priests and bishops of those days were often called upon to lead their people in fighting as well as in praying. The church law forbade them to take the sword, but it said nothing about the hammer. Therefore they took the hammer and went into battle with clear consciences. When either hammer or axe struck its crushing blow, chain armor was worse than nothing, for it tore the flesh beneath it into rough jagged wounds that were hard to heal. The next invention was to fasten on plates of steel at the most exposed places, and soon the coutierre protected the elbow and the jean-ouillière the knee. Little by little the chain armor disappeared, and armor of overlapping scales took its place. Every piece had its name. The chest and back were protected by a cuirass, the throat by a gorget, and thighs by quizzes, the arms and shoulders by brassards and ailets, and the hands by gauntlets, while the shoes were extended to protect the toes. The chain armor was much easier to put on, and a knight could slip it over his head even after he saw his enemy in the distance galloping toward him. The plate armor protected him from sword and spear, and in great degree from hammer and battle axe, but it took so long to put it on that the knight had to wear it not only in time of battle, but whenever there was the least danger of being surprised by an enemy. When two knights fought, the one who could unhorse the other was usually the winner. For while his adversary rolled helplessly on the ground, he could slip a thin slender dagger in between the plates of his armor and kill him. To do such a deed, however, would have been a shame and disgrace to any true knight unless he first asked, will you yield, rescue, or no rescue? If the vanquished man replied, I yield, the dagger of mercy as it was called was not used, but he was led away as a prisoner. If a knight fell into the power of a man who had not taken even the first steps toward knighthood, he was indeed in difficulties. Naturally, he wished to save his life, but to surrender to an adversary of low degree would be a humiliation hard for any valiant knight to endure. Someone discovered an amusing way of escaping from this dilemma. He simply made his captor a knight and then surrendered to him, thus saving both his life and his pride. The knight wore golden spurs. These were his special badge of honor, and they were forbidden to all of lesser rank. He carried a shield large enough to protect his body and to serve as a litter on which, if he was wounded, he could be carried from the field. Across his shoulder he often wore a silken scarf called a baldrick, embroidered by the lady for whose glory his deeds of prowess were done. In Joseph Rodman Drake's poem on the American Flag, he said that it's white came from the milky baldrick of the skies, meaning the milky way. Another way by which a knight could show loyalty to one's lady love was to fasten her glove or scarf to his helmet. Still another way was to fashion one of her sleeves to his shoulder. Sleeves were so long in those times that they sometimes touched the ground and must have hampered the knight badly. The fashion of wearing them as penins was much more reasonable. As a protection from the heat of the sun, which beat down upon his armor of steel, the knight wore also a sort of sleeveless tunic called a tabard, and also jupin, jippin, and surcoat. At first this was made of linen or coarse cloth known as fustion, but as people became more luxurious, silk or fur or cloth of gold was used. It must soon have become badly stained by the armor beneath it. The poet Chaucer never failed to notice whether things were fresh and clean and dainty, and he rode of a knight who had just returned from warfare. Of fustion he wearied a jippin, all besmothered with his haverjune. After armor was so made that it hid the face of the knight, the customer rose of engraving some device upon the shield or breastplate by which he might be recognized. This was also embroidered upon his surcoat and upon the trappings of his horse. These are the arms or coats of arms or armorial bearings that have been handed down in many families, together with the figures on the helmets known as crests. The oldest arms were simple arrangements of straight lines, but soon the devices became more complex. Circles, trefoils, arrows, and swords were used. The figures of animals appeared, such as cranes, mullets, lions, and horses, and also fabulous beasts, such as dragons and unicorns. Frequently a device was chosen which had connection with some event of its bearer's life. If a man had a noted adventure with a wolf, he was likely to choose the figure of a wolf for his coat of arms. The terms in which arms are described are taken from the French. For instance, in figure two, if the shield is silver and the bar or rafter is red, the proper description would be par-jean à chevron-gour. The favorite weapons of the night were the spear and the sword, as has been said. The spear was made of ash and had a head of iron. Just below the head the ensign, called the gonfinan, or penan, was fastened. This was sometimes made of linen, but often of the richest silk. The sword which hung from the night's belt was his darling. He spoke of it almost as affectionately as if it had been a brother in arms. My own good sword, he called it. He even gave it a name. Charlemagne's sword was Joyosa. Roland's was Durrendena. Arthur's was Excalibur. The Sid's favorite sword, Tessona, was buried with him. The sword was more than a weapon, for blade and hilt formed the sacred sign of the cross, and many a good night and true as kissed it fervently and murmured his last prayer as he lay dying on the field of battle. Not only the sword, but also many other parts of the night's equipment had their significance. The straightness of the spear symbolized truth and its iron head strength. The helmet suggested modesty, the spurs diligence. The shield reminded him that as by its use he saved his own body, so ought he to use that body to protect his lord when in danger. The night's good steed that carried him into the battle was an important part of his equipment. The powerful horses of Spain were always liked by knights, but the Arabian courses were even greater favorites. The horses of the Arabs had been petted and loved and treated almost as members of their master's families for so many generations that they were fearless servants and devoted friends. If the night was thrown from his seat, the horse had no thought of running away, but stood quietly beside him, waiting for him to mount. The horse as well as his rider was protected by armor, so that head, chest and flanks were safe from spear thrusts. He was arrayed in trappings as handsome as his master could afford. The housings or saddle cloths were often of rich material and decorated with embroidery. On his head he too wore a crest, and around his neck a collar of little bells. Chaucer says of a monk who liked to go hunting, and von he rode men might to his bridle here, jingling in a whistling wind as clear, an ache as loud as doth the chapel bell. It was on the bridle, however, that the night lavished his pennies. This was ornamented with gold and silver and embroidery, and even with precious stones that flashed and sparkled as the steed bore his rider proudly into the contest. After the combat of the day was over, the tent pitched, and the supper prepared, the faithful horse was not forgotten, and one of the early pictures shows him eating comfortably from a crib in his master's tent close to the night's own table. End of Chapter 2 Chapter 3 of When Nights Were Bold Or he went back to his father's home. In either case life must have seemed a little tame after all the excitement of entering knighthood. It is no wonder that he was eager to go out into the world to try his new armour and to do honour to his lady by his deeds of valor. There were several ways in which a knight might prove his worthiness to enter chivalry. The simplest was to mount his horse and ride out in quest of adventures. His bright shining armour was protected from rain and he himself from heat by his unsoiled circuit. Behind him wrote his squire carrying his master's shield and helmet and an armful of lances. The squire was not always a rash, hot-headed young fellow by any means. A man could hardly maintain knighthood properly without a generous income, and many a squire who was fully qualified to enter the ranks of the knights never went beyond the second grade in chivalry. It was well for the venturesome knight errant or wandering knight if his squire was some sturdy warrior of middle age who would sympathise with his master's thirst for gallant achievements, but would hold him back from foolish recklessness. The country was wild and tough. Deeds of violence were common, and the young knight might be fortunate enough to find an adventure ready made. He might discover that some maiden fair had been torn from her friends, and he could perhaps rescue her and restore her to them. He might stop at a friendly castle to spend the night and find that his lord would be glad of his aid to defend it against some expected attack of its enemies. Even if all was peaceful there might be a chance of a contest or just. When he appeared at the gate the porter might tell him that it was the custom of the castle for every knight who wished a lodging to joust with one or two of the knightly inmates or with the lord of the castle. If the knight errant vanquished his challenger he should have the best lodging that the castle afforded, but if he was overcome he might go his way, or so the porter declared. Visitors were so welcome, however, in the rather lonely castles that I doubt whether any promising stranger was ever allowed to go forth to make his lodging in the forest. Sometimes the stranger himself was the challenger, and when he came to a castle gate he would bid the porter say to the lord of the castle that a knight errant would gladly joust with him or some other brave knight. The stranger was welcomed and led within the walls and the word was carried through the castle that a joust was to take place. Then ladies and knights and squires, the great folk and the small folk of the place all betook themselves to the tilting-ground. This was a green, grassy, level spot within the courtyard surrounded by turfy banks for the look-as-on. The knights took their places, one at each end of the open space. They bent low upon their horses and couched their lances. Then they put spurs to their steeds and dashed together with all their might, each trying to strike the shield of the other with such force that he would fall to the ground. Sometimes both spears were shivered. Then the men would take fresh weapons and try a second bout. Another way by which an ardent knight errant often made sure of a contest was by taking his stand at a bridge or where two roads crossed and challenging every passing night to joust with him. If darkness came and no adversary had been found he would lay down his shield, take his helmet for a pillow, say his prayers, and go to sleep, hoping for better luck in the morning. Sometimes the knight errant instead of simply challenging the other to a contest would declare that his lady was the fairest woman in the world and that he was ready to fight any night in the land to maintain her pre-eminence in beauty. The opposing knight was, of course, equally ready to declare that his lady-love was far more beautiful. The question must be decided by a combat. This usually meant three courses. The spears were carefully baited, that is, blunted. This was often done by heading them with a coronal, a sort of crown ending in from two to six blunt points. These would take hold on shield or helmet, but would do no injury to the wearer. Such a contest was called a jute à plaisance or adjust of peace. Unless something happened to arouse the wrath of the combatants there was really any serious injury done to either of them, but if two knights fought in anger using deadly weapons their combat was known as a jute à l'outrance, that is, adjust to the extreme. After the contest was done the victor spoke in somewhat this wise to the vanquished. I bid you make your way to my lady, through whose favour I have won this victory, and submit yourself wholly to her grace and mercy. As one knight after another presented himself to the lady she must certainly have been fully convinced that her champion was true to her. Moreover, these were times of danger and violence and every evidence of his courage and valor was one more proof of his ability to guard her and protect her. These chance geists at crossroads and castles were good practice in the use of arms, but the grand opportunity for a knight not only to show excellence in knighthood but to manifest ability under the very eyes of his lady-love was found in the tournament or encounter of many knights in a sort of mimic battle. These tournaments were given by wealthy nobles or by the king himself and elaborate preparations were made for them long beforehand. The invitations were carried by the heralds of the giver of the tournament. A castle guard would report that a herald with trumpets and escort was making his way to the castle gate. The gate was straightway thrown open and with a great clattering of hooves the little cavalcade rose over the drawbridge and threw the low dark gateway into the courtyard. The trumpeter blew a blast to call the attention of the folk of the castle. He might have saved his breath, however, for long before this, lords and ladies, knights, squires, pages and servants even down to the scullions in the kitchen had hurried into the courtyard or had found some other place where they could hear what the herald had to say. Then came the proclamation of the tournament, addressed to all who would show their right to knighthood and manifest their respectful ladies. The place, the hour, the prizes, the armour and weapons required and sometimes even the numbers of squires and attendants that each knight must bring were proclaimed. The herald blew his trumpet and gave his announcement not only at castles, but wherever markets were held. Sometimes, if the tournament was to be of unusual splendour, invitations were sent not only throughout the land of the giver, but even into neighbouring countries. Travelling was slow work, therefore the invitations must have been given long before the time set for the tournament, but I fancy there was not a young knight in the land who did not, on the very day of the herald's visit, begin to polish his armour and take a look at his spears to make sure that their ash and shafts showed no sign of flaw. As for the ladies, they too had their share of preparations to make, for they must appear in their most sumptuous attire to grace the occasion. Each one hoped that her own special knight would cover himself with glory, and then she would faint look her fairest, that all might have respect for the choice that he had made. The journey to a tournament might be long, but it was safer than other journeys, for even rulers of hostile countries would have thought it unworthy of them to interfere with those who were on their way to a trial of arms. As for the king of whatever land it might be in which the tournament was to take place, he was always delighted within the occasion that gave his knights practice. From far and near little companies of knights were the ladies of the noble households and the squires, and pages and servants in attendance rode merrily toward the place of meeting. Once there they were welcomed by their host and lodgings were arranged for them. Some were to sleep within the castle itself, some in a neighbouring village, some in tents belonging to the lord of the castle, and some had brought their own tents. Wherever a knight was lodged he planted his spear and banner, and over the entrance he set up the design which was on his coat of arms. These designs were known to all the other knights, and they were carefully scrutinised. In the earlier days of chivalry only knights of noble descent were allowed to join in a tournament, but in later times not only men of humble birth who had been knighted for their bravery, but even squires were admitted to the privileges of the lists. Occasionally too a man who had some good reason for not revealing his name was allowed to join the tourney. Humble birth, then, might be pardoned, and concealment of one's name might sometimes be overlooked, but there was one thing that was never forgiven, and that was unworthiness. If a knight had been false to any woman or had broken his word or had shown cowardice or ingratitude he might as well have remained at home for he would be forbidden to take any part in the tournament, and his banner would be torn down in disgrace. The courtyard of the castle must have seemed like a village in a time of holiday. There were old friends who saw each other but seldom. There were knights whose rumoured bravery everyone wanted to see tested. There were gallant youths and maidens fair. There was talk of other tournaments and the feats which had made them remembered of hawking and hunting of new castles that had been built and old ones that had been valiantly defended of weapons and warfare and horses and heroes. There were little trial jousts between knights. There were feasting and music and dancing and singing and exchanging of gifts and plighting of troughs. On the night before the tournament everybody went to bed early. But when the morning had come the courtyard was no longer a village on a holiday. It was rather a village hard at work. No one was idle for the handles of the shields must be tried, the armour must have its final polish, straps, rivets and buckles must be examined for the last time, horses must be fed and rubbed down. Even the musicians were testing their clarions and kettle drums and pipes and trumpets as if the success of the whole day ended upon their being in full tone. Everyone was discussing those who were to contest. One was a favourite because he had distinguished himself elsewhere, another because of his great strength or his determined manner or his skill in managing his horse. Of course every lady had her favourite night but the ladies were bound to be fair for they were umpire as if any dispute arose and the prizes were presented according to their decision. Early in the morning the contestants had been to mass and now when all was ready everyone turned toward the lists. These had been prepared long before. A level oblong area had been fenced off with a double row of wooden railings. Between the two was the space saved for those who were to assist injured knights or who held some position of responsibility. Outside of this space wooden galleries often very handsome had been built for the spectators. These galleries were gorgeous with tapestry and banners and with the bright coloured dresses and sparkling jewels of the ladies. The lord of the tournament had already announced what arms it would be allowable to use. As a general thing it was forbidden to bring into the lists any weapon with a sharp point. The broad sword but not the pointed sword was sometimes permitted. The points of the lances were removed or protected by coronals or covered with pieces of wood called rockets. The heralds now proclaimed the rules of the contest. He who broke most lances was to have the first prize but they must be broken in strict accordance with the laws of the tournament. For instance to break a spear by striking a man out of his saddle counted three points but to break one by striking the saddle itself made a loss of one point. To meet coronal with coronal twice was regarded as worthy of a prize but it counted less to unhorse a man with a spear thrust. The prize was lost to anyone who struck a horse or struck a man when his back was turned or when he was unarmed. To break a lance across the breast of an opponent was looked upon as shame because it showed poor riding and to ride well was the most essential qualification of a knight. Shakespeare laughs at the puny tilter that spurs his horse but on one side if for a moment of rest or for any other reason a man took off his helmet no one might touch him until it was replaced but to prevent any abuse of the privilege he who removed his helmet twice for any other reason than because his horse had failed him lost all chance of a prize. After the Constable had examined the arms of the knights he looked carefully at their saddle fastenings to make sure that no one proposed to stick to his horse by leather straps rather than by good horsemanship. When all was ready the heralds cried come forth knights, come forth and a glittering cavalcade made its way into the lists. The horses in their superb trappings their bridles blazing with jewels pranced and caracold. Sometimes every night was led by a chain of gold or silver the other end of which was held in the white hand of some lady fair. The armour gleamed and flashed in the sun our memorial bearings shone forth on the brightly polished shields from dueled helmets and from lances fluttered gloves or ribbons belonging to the ladies who were watching so eagerly and from many a nightly shoulder hung the richly ornamented sleeve of some calmly maiden. The knights were in two groups separated by a rope one party at either end of the lists behind them rode their squire as often as many as three to a knight. Let go! cried the ladies. The trumpets sounded. Do your duty, valiant knights, the heralds shouted. The rope was snatched aside the knights bent low but spurs to their horses and with lances in rest dashed forward to meet their opponents each one calling the name of his lady-love. The eyes of the beautiful behold you onward onward cried the spectators. The minstrels played, the trumpets blared the plane was shaken with the trampling of the horses the pin of arms and the cracking of stout ashen spears filled the air men were thrown from their steeds blood mingled with the dust and the first course had been run. Sometimes there were several such encounters and when the end had come the heralds cried, fold your banners and soon the lists were deserted. After the knights had bathed and dressed they met the ladies in the great hall of the castle and macquitted and made merry. The scene for which all waited was yet to come and when the feasting had been brought to an end the fair lady who had been chosen queen of love and beauty took her seat upon a dais. The heralds led up to her one brave night after another rehearsing in a loud voice the claims of each to a prize and as they knelt before her she presented to each one the reward which in the judgment of the ladies was due to his valor. This was sometimes a silver helmet or one richly ornamented with gold a crown of gold, a golden clasp or perhaps a diamond, ruby or sapphire set in a heavy golden ring. With every gift the queen made a little speech which always closed with the hope that the recipient might be happy with his lady love. The victory was owing to the favour of my lady which I wore in my helmet was the proper reply for the night to make. After the prizes had all been awarded gifts were made to the heralds. Then followed a ball and here not the man of noblest birth but the man who had shown most valor in the lists was most highly honoured. With music and dancing the long bright joyous day came to its close. Frequently a single day was not enough to satisfy the love of nightly price and on the second day the lists were given over to the squires. They wore the armour of their respective knights and strove their best to do it honour. Prizes were presented to them by young maidens. Sometimes there was even a third day of tilting and in that case both knights and squires took part. Such was the general course of tournaments but they differed at different times and in different countries and according to the wishes and rulings of the givers. Sometimes if the leaders of the two sides chanced to be enemies or rivals the tournament became a little war. Deadly weapons were then smuggled into the lists and the ground was drenched with blood. The intention of the tournament however was that the utmost courtesy should be shown and that an opportunity should be given to manifest skill in arms and cultivate it rather than to wound or maim or destroy life. At best it was a rough and sometimes a fatal sport but it did teach men that even in the midst of the most eager struggles for victory it was possible for them to recognise laws and exercise self-restraint. An appeal to arms was often made to settle questions of justice. If two men claimed the same piece of ground for instance they might decide the ownership by a contest. Even if a man was accused of crime he was sometimes allowed to prove his innocence if he could, by showing himself or his chosen champion the victor in a duel. Under Charlemagne a test of endurance was legally used when two men differed. They were made to take their stand before a cross with their arms stretched out. The one whose arms first dropped lost his suit. In charges of serious crime however the people of the Middle Ages often used methods that might well appall the most innocent. One was to bind the accused hand and foot and let him down by a rope into the water. It was believed that if he was guilty the water would refuse to receive him and he would float, but that if he was innocent he would sink. It is to be hoped that the officers never forgot to rescue the man who sank. Far worse than this was the ordeal by boiling water. This was a matter of much ceremony. It took place in the church. First a cross, a censor and relics of the saints were born into the building. The priest followed, carrying a copy of the Gospels. He chanted a litany and the seven penitential psalms. He prayed that the truce might be revealed and that if the accused had had recourse to herbs or magic it might not save him. Holy water was sprinkled about particularly upon the kettle in order that any illusions of the devil might be driven away. Then with many prayers the hand of the accused was thoroughly washed. He drank a cup of holy water and plunged his hand into the boiling kettle. The hand was sealed up and at the end of three days it was formally examined. It showed no sign of a burn the man was declared innocent, but if there was a blister half as large as a walnut this was regarded as proof of his guilt. Another ordeal was that of the hot iron. This sometimes consisted of carrying red hot iron seven or nine paces, sometimes of walking upon burning cloutiers. In the eleventh century Queen Emma of England was accused of crime and was brought into the church for the test. The pavement was carefully swept and nine red hot cloutiers were laid upon it. The Queen's shoes and stockings were taken off and her cloak thrown aside. Two bishops, one on either hand, led her toward the iron. Throughout the church there was sobbing and weeping. Help her, help her, since with and help her! The people cried. The bishops, too, were in tears, but they bet her not to fear for God would not suffer the innocent to come to harm. Then she stepped upon the cloutiers one after another. The old count says that she felt no pain and that her feet showed no injury. The theory of these trials was that God would always save the guiltless, but many explanations had been attempted of the reason why hot water and hot iron did not burn. If the water, or the melted lead, which was sometimes used, was hot enough, feats similar to these have been performed. In regard to the test of the red hot iron it has been suggested that during the many prayers that seem to have been said after the irons were laid in place plowshares on a stone floor would cool very rapidly. Again we are reminded that all these trials were in the hands of the priests, that the people were expecting miracles and that if the priests wished to save a man they could easily arrange some deception or could harden his skin by some ointment. Only no one can guess what the ointment could have been. People connected with the church were not obliged to undergo such experiences. For no matter of what crime they were accused they could always demand a trial before the church courts. This was called benefit of clergy. In some of the church courts of the 13th century if a man accused of crime swore that he was innocent and could bring in twelve of his friends who would lay their hands on some holy relics and swear that they believed him, he was allowed to go free. To escape in this way was not quite so easy as it looks. For the general belief was that a perjurer would probably be made a dwarf or would be unable to remove his hands or would even be struck dead. Naturally then, the compurgators or fellow-swearers were somewhat nervous and if they made the least mistake in repeating the required form of words their oaths were of no avail. Not only priests, but all their assistants even to the doorkeeper were allowed benefit of clergy. In some places if a man could read a single line he was allowed the same privilege. It is even said that the same verse of the Psalms was always used as a test. Besides the comparative comfort of the trial the punishments of the church courts were exceedingly light when contrasted with the brutal penalties of the king's courts. But for the manicused of serious crime who could not make out that he had any connection with the church or any book learning there was generally little hope of escaping some one of the ordeals which have just been described. End of Chapter 3 Chapter 4 of When Nights Were Bold This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org When Nights Were Bold by Eva March Tappan Chapter 4 How to Capture a Castle In the times when no man was safe unless he could protect himself with his own strong arm or the arms of his followers the castle of a nobleman had to be well fortified if it was not the chances were that it would soon change owners the very word castle means a fortified residence. At first the means of protection were the simplest kind a wide earthen wall thrown up around a group of huts was regarded as a valuable defense stronger walls were made by using trunks of trees and rough stonework for the foundation and filling in the spaces with earth stakes were driven down and bound together to form a stout palisade or fence after a time wooden forts were reared of heavy logs and beams stone finally took the place of wood and it was of stone that most of the castles of the days of nighthood were built these were far removed from the simple fortifications of earlier times they had massive stone walls and towers, moats or wide deep ditches filled with water inner courts and outer courts chapels, cellars, dungeons together with chambers and staircases cut out of the thickness of the walls draw bridges and underground passages all of which seemed somewhat romantic in stories but which were exceedingly necessary and matter of fact means of protection when they were built for the sight of a castle a noble sometimes chose an island in a lake like the famous castle of Shilon in Lake Geneva or a low swampy place that an enemy would find difficult to reach so they transferred the bank of a river for some high rocky location one of the most famous castles was the Chateau Gaillard or the Saucy Castle which was built in Normandy by Richard the Lionhearted in the days when kings of England still held possessions in France it stood on a narrow promontory 300 feet above the river Seine with a deep valley on either hand the north end of the promontory was so steep and rocky that there was little danger of an attack on that side the south end however sloped and up this gently rising ground an enemy might easily advance it was wise then to make the fortifications exceedingly strong at the south a glance at the plan shows how this was done sea represents an outwork with five strong towers whose walls were 11 feet thick these were connected by curtains that is heavy stone walls from 8 to 12 feet thick and 30 or more in height all around this massive outwork was a ditch E some 30 feet wide and more than 40 feet deep the gate was at D but before anyone could reach it he must find some way of crossing the moat friends might cross by means of a wooden drawbridge but at the first glimpse of an enemy chains and weights were set in motion and the bridge was pulled up flat against the wall the gate was protected by a porcolus that is a sort of screen made up of heavy beams each one pointed with iron when no enemy was at hand this hung quietly above the entrance but at the first sign of danger there was a great rattling of chains and in a moment the porcolus had dropped in its grooves between this outwork or outer court C and the middle court B there must have been some sort of passageway and probably walls to protect it the middle court had also a moat it had towers and curtains and within it was a chapel F and a well G out of this middle court an area was taken about as large as the outer court to form the inner court A the wall which separated the two courts was so strong that it does not seem as if it could ever have been overthrown for it was 30 feet high and 8 feet thick this was only the beginning of its strength however for on the side next to the middle court rounding buttresses had been added to the wall there were probably battlements that is a low narrow wall running along the outer edge of the main wall and cut down at points a few feet apart the defenders of the castle could shoot their arrows through the open spaces and then step behind the parapet for shelter the wall protected the inner court but the wall itself was protected for the solid cliff on which it stood was cut down perpendicularly or scarped for 20 feet so that even if an enemy had succeeded in getting possession of the middle court he would still have the moat H to cross and on the other side of the moat there would tower up above him 20 feet of perpendicular cliff and 30 feet of solid wall the entrance to the inner court was at I it was approached by a causeway cut out of the solid rock but it did not afford a very agreeable entrance to an unwelcome visitor for there was an outer portcullis and an inner portcullis and even if he succeeded in passing these and also the gateway studded with iron he would find himself at the foot of a steep stairway cut in the rock and the greeting that he would receive from the inmates of the castle would not be to his liking the inner court then stood some 20 feet above the middle court it was protected by a wall 30 feet high with a perpendicular base 20 feet high and by a moat within this court was a deep well which the defenders of this court might be cut off from the well at G in this inner court was the strongest fortification of all the castle proper the great tower known as the keep K its walls were 11 feet thick the circular space within was 26 feet in diameter and the basement was one window but no door the first floor had two windows but they were small for safety was thought of however was a door small and well protected it was many feet from the ground and was probably reached by a ladder or movable stairway the keep was of a singular shape evidently King Richard thought that there was little danger of an attack being made from the west for on that side was a sheer descent of cliff but the spur of the keep that projected into the first court he made in the shape of a right angle and built it of solid masonry the keep was the final place of refuge and even after every other part of the fortifications had fallen into the hands of an enemy this could generally withstand any attack that could be made by the engines of those times nevertheless in order to make this keep even stronger the lower part of the wall battered that is it sloped outward at the base while above the base rose what are known as articulations these were long heavy brackets supporting a sort of gallery with a parapet in the floor of the gallery between the articulations or openings through which arrows could be shot downward or heavy stones could be dropped or boiling water or oil or melted lead could be poured straight down upon the heads of the besiegers it is thought that from the top of this keep another and smaller tower rose and from that yet another but probably built of wood joining the keep on the north was a building K to have been the lodging of a castle or governor of the castle from this building stairs descended to what was called the postern gate L this was a little narrow door with heavy bars it was from this gate that spies or messengers were sent out in time of siege to reach it from within steps were cut in the rock for about 30 feet to reach it from without must have been almost impossible for it opened upon the perpendicular face to let out a messenger or admit a friend a ladder or a movable bridge was let down every castle had its postern so that if the inmates were besieged they might have some possible way of communication dangerous as it was with the outer world when one looks at the ruins of the castles of the middle ages one can hardly see how an enemy ever had the courage to attempt to capture one of them indeed if a foe could spare the time and the men it was usually easier and cheaper to keep close watch of it until the inmates were starved into a surrender no matter how full of food the storehouses might be it would give out some time and if no assistance came from outside the castle would have to yield if an attempt to subdue a castle was made however there were three common methods of attack one was to force away in through a gate if possible a second to get to the top of the protecting wall and overpower the defenders and a third to undermine the walls if the wall was neither too high nor too well guarded the enemy could sometimes set up scaling ladders with their iron hooks and make a furious attack upon the defenders at the top which they resisted as furiously with crowbars and bills and boar spears the best way to get to the top of a high and well defended wall was to use the movable tower this was a wooden shed several stories high and set upon rollers when this was to be used there was a busy running to and fro to collect turf and trunks of trees to throw into the moat as soon as enough of these materials had been collected to choke up the moat and make a roadway across it the great tower was rolled cumbersly across the moat and up to the wall it was filled with men and the moment that it was near enough to the rampart a drawbridge was dropped from its upper story to the top of the wall over this bridge rushed the besiegers and a terrible contest was carried on of course the defenders did not sit quietly while the tower was being moved up they threw upon it what was called Greek fire in the hope of setting it ablaze Greek fire is thought to have been made of asphalt, niter, and sulfur wherever it was thrown there it stuck it did little damage to these towers however for their makers had covered them carefully with plates of metal to draw hides storms of arrows were shot by both sides but the men in the tower were so well protected by its walls that little harm was done them when the tower was in place and the bridge down the besiegers had one great advantage for they could march out a whole column from the tower while the defenders had seldom room on the wall for more than a thin line a third way of attacking a castle was by attempting to undermine the walls if these rested upon Soraki a foundation as that of the saucy castle the matter was far more difficult but if the ground was soft a mine or passage underground could be begun at some distance away and dug under the very base of the wall beams were put in to support the wall and straw, twigs, and dry wood were heaped up under them the miners set this on fire and crept out of the hole as fast as possible as soon as the beams were burned through the wall above them generally fell and through the breach the besiegers rushed in with good hope of winning a victory mining did not always go on so smoothly however for it often happened that someone within the castle had ear so quick that he heard noises underground and suspected what was being done then a counter mine was dug from within outward in the hope of intercepting the other mine the two passages sometimes met and the fighting between the men underground was most furious and savage if the castle had a firm rocky foundation the only possible way to undermine the wall was by use of the pickaxe this was not easy when the defenders behind the parapets were shooting arrows and great stones and dropping boiling water or oil or melted lead down through the openings between the meticulations and if it was to succeed there must be some sort of protection for the men with the pickaxes this protection was called the cat in some places the rat it was shaped like a long narrow house with side walls the roof sloped sharply so that the heavy stones and beams that would be thrown upon it from the top of the wall might roll off harmlessly to protect it from fire it was often covered with iron and over this raw hides or wet earth was laid then too men within the structure were always on guard with long forks or poles whose ends were covered by a blanket to thrust off the firebrands this was built in some place out of range of the arrows and stones and then moved up close to the wall under its shelter men could work in safety they had a valuable tool in what was known as a bosson this was a battering ram a long heavy beam with an iron head it was on wheels and when the besiegers rolled it up and dashed it against the wall it struck with terrific force the defenders on the top of the wall tried to break its head off by dropping heavy stones and timbers upon it but the besiegers leaned strong poles against the wall in such a way that these slid off harmlessly the attempt to set it afire was usually hopeless for it was kept thoroughly wet and was covered with mud sometimes however a narrow tunnel was dug as quietly as possible from within the fort out under the cat and a barrel or two of Greek fire slipped beneath it the defenders on the wall watched eagerly to see the flames burst out they might well count the moments for at any instant the stonework under their feet might crumble all this time both besiegers and defenders were constantly firing arrows at each other by hand and also by machines called ballistas which were like immense crossbows and shot great arrows and javelins with tremendous force to protect themselves from these the besiegers used bucklers and also a sort of screen called a mantelet which they moved before them on wheels in the screen was a narrow slit through which they could send back a return fire in the 14th century cannon were used to some extent but they could fire only three or four shots an hour and had an unpleasant custom of exploding outside a fort they were of some little value but when the besieger ventured to mount them on the walls the chief damage done was to their owners their recoil loosened the stones of the wall and frequently the cannon ingloriously rolled off the most important machines were those for throwing stones and these as well as the ballistas were used by both besiegers and besieged they were exceedingly powerful some of them could hurl for 600 feet a stone weighing 300 pounds if they could only have worked rapidly they would have done an immense amount of damage but it took several days to set one up and the best of them could throw only a few stones in an hour moreover it was impossible to take accurate aim one of these machines was called a tribuchet it consisted of two uprights connected at the top by a bar resting on the bar was a ponderous beam the shorter arm of this beam was heavily weighted by using much force the longer arm was slowly pulled down to the ground and in a sort of sling fastened to it a great stone was placed or perhaps a barrel of Greek fire then it was suddenly let go the short arm dropped and the stone was hurled with tremendous power there were other machines the manganelle, catapult espringale, etc. but they were not very dissimilar and most of them resembled in principle either the ballista or the tribuchet many romantic descriptions of taking castles have been written but the real thing had little of romance about it in a real siege the air was full of heavy stones javelins, arrows, and darts some bearing masses of blazing pitch and toe with occasionally perhaps an arrow carrying a message from a traitor either within or without the walls to the opposing party of barrels of the terrible Greek fire of smoke from burning roofs and galleries and of crumbling mortar from falling ramparts there was a wild and hard confusion of terrible sounds the din of armor the shouting of battle cries the lying men and the crash of falling stones and timbers and crumbling walls men shrieked in agony as they were burned by the boiling oil or melted pitch or blinded by the unslaked lime poured down upon them from the walls the moat ran red with blood such was a real assault upon a castle in the Middle Ages the story of the fall of the Chateau Gaillard is full of interest it was a pet child of King Richard and in 1198 he called it my fair daughter of one year old King Philip of France declared I would take it if its walls were of iron Richard retorted and I could hold it if they were of butter perhaps he could have done so but one year later he was dead and his brother John who followed him was a man of quite different metal Philip captured one after another of the Norman castles held by the English king to Chateau Gaillard the strongest of them all this was early in the autumn of 1203 he captured the neighboring villages and then, having cut off all supplies settled down quietly before the castle to wait till its inmates should be hungry enough to surrender they are young birds who will have to fly when spring comes he said contentedly a few months later however Philip became tired of watching he succeeded in undermining the wall and captured it among his followers was a poor man by the name of Ralph or the snub nose whatever may have been the shape of his nose he had keen eyes he noticed a little window M and began to wonder if he could not climb in and open the way for the others he and a few trusty comrades crept softly around the court until they stood under the window Ralph stood upon the shoulders of one of his companions and looked in no one was on guard at that place and there were no protecting bars he scrambled in and found himself in either the chapel or a storehouse connected with it the defenders discovered that their enemies were in the building and foolishly set fire to it the flames spread and the garrison escaped to the inner court then Ralph let down the drawbridge and the procedures poured in so it was that by the keenness and daring of one man this middle court was taken such a deed as that was not left unrewarded and to Ralph was given a knight's fee that is sufficient land to maintain properly a knight and his followers the inner court alone remained in the hands of the defenders Phillips men moved up a cat over the causeway at eye and in its shelter a mine was dug under the walls a machine for throwing stones followed the cat a breach was made in the heavy masonry and the procedures rushed in the defenders were overpowered and after a siege of six months the saucy castle fell the middle ages were a time of almost constant warfare there were quarrels between kings between kings and their barons and among the barons themselves and all these quarrels implied fighting the poor suffered severely and the church came to their rescue the French bishops tried their best to bring about what was called the peace of God high and low were bidden to take an oath to refrain from making war this served as some little protection for churches priests and laborers but powerful as the church was it could not oblige the unruly barons to take the oath or keep it if it had been taken then the church very wisely lessened her demands and called upon one and all to set apart certain portions of the year to be free from bloodshed these were from Wednesday evening to Monday morning and every week about twenty feast days of saints and the seasons of Advent, Christmas Lent and Easter the bishops and the rulers of France and to some degree of Germany, Italy Spain and England supported this decree and as far as possible those who broke the rule were punished the archbishop of Cologne made a rule that if this law was violated by any noble his heirs might seize his property a boy under twelve who fought was to be whipped if over twelve he was to lose one hand this rule of peace was called the truce of God and often as it was broken it nevertheless did much to quiet the turbulent lands and protect the poor and helpless another way in which the church tried to aid the oppressed was by establishing sanctuaries or holy places wherein it was forbidden to shed blood in those stormy times if a man was supposed to have wronged another that other pursued him sword in hand but if he took refuge in a church he was safe for the clergy would keep him until some terms had been made between the two this was called the right of sanctuary it was an excellent thing so long as there was little real authority in the land but after it had become established that an accused man would be brought to trial then the right often became an occasion of wrong if a man who had fled to his sanctuary would confess he was allowed to abjure the realm that is to swear to depart in the land and never return a punishment which was a little hard on the neighboring countries if he refused to confess the law was helpless for the clergy would brook no interference with their right of giving shelter and protection the result was that a man who carefully planned a murder and was shrewd enough to commit it with an easy reach of a church could escape while one who committed a crime on the spur of the moment had far less chance to avoid the penalty that the sanctuary was not entirely abolished in England until the 18th century End of Chapter 4 Chapter 5 of When Nights Were Bold This is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org This recording by Anna Roberts When Nights Were Bold by Eva March Tappan Chapter 5 Daily Life in a Castle The Chateau Gaillard was built primarily for a fortification but in general a castle was meant for a dwelling place as well as a fortress and its keep was the home of the master and his family their life was not always so narrow and cramped as one might fancy some castles to be sure consisted of little more than a single strong tower and a moat but in others the outer court was large enough to contain not only a garden a poultry yard and a water mill but also a lake or fish pond for a time of siege a fortured and even cultivated fields this outer court was sometimes almost like a village for there was often a forge, a bakery a carpenter's shop, a falconry and a stable besides houses and a church in the inner court there was frequently a chapel also but this church more than once served a double purpose it was sure to suffer if the castle was stormed and then a messenger was let down from the post turn gate to make his way to friends and report that a sacrilegious enemy was making the church of God if they would then win the favor of the church authorities they must hasten to the rescue the center of the daily life of the castle was the large room known as the hall this varied greatly at different times and in different places in the earlier days the hall was only a bare room with some flat stones in the center on these meat was cooked and the smoke found its way out through a hole in the roof as best it could as time passed and towers were built of several stories fireplaces with flues were made the floor was tiled and strewn with rushes the walls were hung with banners tapestry and standards bright with armorial bearings here and there were shields and armor or a cluster of lances long oaken tables with wooden benches stood ready for use or else before each meal trestles were brought in and boards were laid upon them for in those days the festive board was a literal board the table of the master of the castle the hall this place was called the dais at the opposite end of the room was a wooden gallery for musicians built halfway up the wall when bedtime came course mattresses were laid on the floor for here the people of the household and their guests were to pass the night the bed of the noble and his wife stood at the farther end of the hall separated from the rest of the room by curtains but later when other stories were added a room for them and also other bedrooms were built some on the upper floors and some in the thickness of the walls in the simpler castles the furnishings of these bedrooms were few and plain hardly more than one or more beds a bench or two and a wooden chest but in the dwellings of the wealthy there was considerable display the posts of the beds were sometimes gilded inlaid with ivory or ornamented with precious stones and the bed coverings were of silk or fur with a golden fringe there was also a wardrobe made gorgeous with bright colors the beds were handsomely carved and for jewels there were smaller chests covered with leather frequently there was in one corner a richly ornamented shrine enclosing a relic of some saint it is said that in Italy the beds were often put high up on trestles to escape the rats and mice there was a certain rude magnificence about the place but there was not what the people of today would call comfort for instance those heavy stone walls must have been cold but in England even so late as the 15th century the fire in one's bedroom was regarded as a foolish indulgence and the rooms were certainly not so light as we wish our rooms to be it was not safe to make the windows too large and even a window of generous size would not let in much sunshine if cut into a wall 10 or 15 feet in thickness the rooms were often made more cheerful however by decorations of red and yellow and blue or by paintings of flowers and leaves conventionally treated and decidedly crude but bright and cheery more droves and richly carved chests in the bedrooms there was no lack of expensive clothes in the 14th century England tried her best to keep her people from extravagance in dress and to oblige them to wear goods of English weaving parliament decreed that no one but the king queen and their children should be allowed to wear imported cloth and that no one should wear foreign furs or silks unless he had a yearly rent of 100 pounds in the 14th century 100 pounds would buy as much as several times that amount today and had to be very well to do before the law would permit him and his family to dress as they chose the fashions changed as extremely if not quite so rapidly as today toward the end of the century English ladies wore tight fitting dresses with long full skirts the sleeves were tight extending down to the knuckles and with 60 or 70 buttons on each arm a few years later buttons were no longer seen on the sleeves and the sleeves themselves came only to the wrist they grew larger and looser so loose that finally a second pair made to fit closely were worn under them tightly fitting jackets were introduced and were worn with full skirts of some other color the only rule in regard to wearing colors was apparently to have plenty of them a blue petticoat displayed by lifting a purple skirt adorned with a broad yellow band and worn with an ermine trimmed jacket was evidently regarded as being in most excellent taste apparently a combination of long loose robe of blue yellow girdle red cloak and red shoes was felt to be above criticism at several periods during the middle ages it was in the height of the mode for a lady of rank to wear a dress presenting the coat of arms of her husband's family and her own but it must have been a wee bit startling to see a noble dame appear in a dress white on one side with some conventional figures in black and yellow on the other side with a gorgeous red lion rampant for ornament this costume was completed by a tight blue jacket trimmed with ermine a close red cap and a crown but of all the remarkable fashions those pertaining to the headdress were the most astounding in the 13th century and again in later times married women wore the wimple that is a covering of linen or silk arranged in folds over the chin, neck and the sides of the face but this gradually disappeared in favor of even more surprising modes at one time the hair was put smoothly into a net often made of thread of gold then it was so puffed out at the sides that a fashionable lady had the appearance of wearing horns these grew higher and higher but at length a steeple shaped cap took their place this was followed by one made of wire in various sorts of thin material put together in such a way that the cap stood out on either side of the head like the wings of an enormous butterfly another style of headdress was made like a giant cornucopia and was worn slanting up and back along a sort of drapery that floated over the shoulders and from its highest point a long scarf stream down the ladies back to the floor one sort of headdress was shaped like a harp one like a heart one like a tower with battlements from the top of which a long white veil flowed one was like a large crescent with a generous amount of drapery and one looked exactly as if two large napkins had been shaken out and hung by their centers over long sticks which in some marvelous way were made to stand firm in my ladies hair the heads of the men were free from such wild freaks of fashion but they too delighted in bright colors a long loose gown of brilliant red its full sleeves lined with ermine and half concealing another pair which were blue and tight the trimming of the whole of the most dazzling yellow was thought to be a quiet but appropriate costume for a king this garb was completed by a sort of fez worn on the head red and with red drapery hanging around it yellow small attention was paid to cleanliness the English thought the French exceedingly extravagant because they changed their ruffles once a week and put on clean shirts once a fortnight for men as well as for women strict laws were made even if they were not strictly obeyed toward the end of the 14th century serving men in England were forbidden to wear cloth costing more than two marks that is 16 ounces of silver apiece men practicing any handicraft might wear cloth only and no jewelry while if their wives ventured to wear any fur save that of lamb, conie, cat and fox they were in danger of getting into trouble Squires whose income from land was 200 marks a year were allowed to wear cloth of silver and a reasonable amount of silver ornamentation a gentleman with the same income but not a squire was limited to cloth and even a reasonable amount of jewelry was forbidden him even a knight with an annual income of 200 pounds was forbidden to wear cloth of gold and the ermine in miniver or perhaps squirrel that were sacred to royalty shoes were worn with pointed toes so long that they had to be fastened to the knees with slender chains of gold or silver laws were passed limiting the length of those toes to two inches but sumptuary laws as laws concerning dress are called are rarely obeyed and while the lawmakers continued to make them the people moved on serenely and broke as many of them as their purses or their credit would permit the humbler folk it was a mark of rising in the world to dress themselves a little more richly than the law permitted and as for the great folk it would have been strange enough if these people so independent in the other affairs had shown themselves meek and yielding in the matter of the clothes that they put on their own backs and paid for out of their own pockets the wearers of the crown hardly set them an example of simplicity for it is said that Richard II had a coat of cloth of gold decorated with his nobles had no hesitation in following the lead of their lord and it is claimed that one of them had 250 new suits of apparel of cloth of gold or tissue such was the dress of the day and the somber old stone walls of the castles must have afforded a most excellent background for its display these brilliant costumes were not for everyday wear however for even in a fortified castle there were more common days and a home life the hall was the center of this home life the general living room as has been said of course its size varied greatly according to the wealth and wishes of the master of the castle one hall is described as being able to hold one thousand men others were small but whether their dimensions were wide or narrow the general character did not alter for seats there were chairs and benches and sometimes handsome cushions on the floor and there was always a fireplace for many generations in the center of the room wherein big round logs blazed and glowed even the best of fires in an open fireplace however are inclined to burn the face and freeze the back and the tapestry on the walls served a useful purpose in adding to the comfort of the hall in the castles of wealthy nobles these hangings were sometimes made of brocade or cloth of gold and silver brought from the east but in the fifteenth century very handsome tapestries were woven in Europe especially in Flanders in what is now called Belgium and at Paris in northern France indeed the heiress tapestry came into so common use that Shakespeare says behind the heiress when he means behind the tapestry some tapestry was simple but that which was made for kings and princes and cathedrals was often most elaborate it pictured scenes from the Bible or from the lives of saints or from hunting and hawking or from some of the romances which were such a delight to the people of the Middle Ages early in the morning the watchmen of the castle sounded his horn from the battlements of the keep to say that the sun had risen and all was well the day was short for people in general did not sit up very long after the five o'clock supper the dinner hour was from nine to eleven in the four noon in the hall were held the mighty feasts in which the noble appetites of the day so rejoiced what would a modern caterer say to a bill of fare that began boldly with venison a quarter of bear and the shoulder of a wild boar looked its way valiantly onward through a course of roasted peacocks and swans a second of poultry and a third of waterfowl and small game to venison and peasant pasties and pigeon pie by the time that this was reached the feast was fairly underway and the guests were well prepared for such trifles as shad, salmon, mullet and eel pie the last a special favorite after this came pastry of all sorts and sweet meats then clothes, ginger and other spices these made people ravenously thirsty and they were quite ready for the big cups of wine mixed with honey or spice that now appeared the young pages of the castle attended upon the guests but the heavier waiting was done by stalwart serving men a feast like this was only a simple repast compared with that served in 1403 at the marriage of Henry IV there were only six courses but a course included an amazing collection of eatables the second course for instance comprised mason served with frumenti a dish made of milk, sugar and wheat jelly, sucking pigs rabbits, bitterns stuffed hens, partridges leech that is a mixture of cream sugar, almonds and icing glass and boiled meat of some sort the course ended as did every course with what was called a sotelt or subtlety this was somewhat like what is known today as a float only on a very small scale what served at this feast was an image of a pelican sitting on her nest with her young ones and beside it St. Catherine holding a book in her hand and disputing with the doctors another much more elaborate was made for the coronation of Henry VI in this the child Jesus sits upon his mother's knees St. George and St. Dennis kneel one on either side King Henry bears in his hand a petition for the favor of the blessed lady Christ's mother dear the in general however the glory of a banquet consisted not in the nicety of cooking and elegance of serving but rather in providing unlimited quantities and countless varieties of food the peacock and the swan were looked upon as the most luxurious dishes of the age the peacock was carefully skinned then roasted but before he was brought to the table his skin was fastened around him with skewers an old recipe for serving swan is as follows. Make a stiff bed of paste about the thickness of your thumb and color it green. Comb it out and it will look like a meadow of green grass. Take your swan and gild him over with gold, then have a kind of loose flying cloak of a vermilion color within and painted with arms without. Then set the swan upon this bed, cover some part of him with a cloak, stick about him small banners upon little sticks, the banners painted with the arms most agreeable to the people seated at the table. As time passed less meat and more vegetables were used. The bread was of various sorts. In England the best and finest was marked with the figure of Christ and was called Our Lord's Bread. There were at least two grades of bread below this not counting the wastle bread, a very coarse brown bread. Wine was much in evidence but the everyday drinks were different varieties of ale or mead. The dishes used at table buried as greatly as they do in the homes of today. The cups or goblets were handsome when the expense could be afforded. They were made of gold or silver and beautifully ornamented with precious stones. Often a feast was lighted by men ranging along the walls of the room bearing flaming torches and the jewels must have gleamed and flashed in the ever changing glare. People ate from trenchers or rude plates. At first thick slices of stale bread were used, then trenchers were made of wood and were kept measurably clean by being scoured with ashes. People of the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries were well content to eat two at a trencher. The phrase, a valiant trencher man, was the literal description of a man with a good appetite and appetites were good in those days. Even in the 16th century Anne Boleyn, wife of Henry the 8th, regretted that she could eat for breakfast only half a pound of bacon and drink only half a tankard of ale. She ascribed her loss of appetite to the late hours that she was keeping, being scarcely in bed before 10, she lamented. The serving dishes were made of wood, pewter, silver, or gold according to the wealth of the master of the castle. Knives and spoons and fingers were used as weapons of table warfare. Forks were in use in Italy, but it was well into the 17th century or even later before they became at all common in the other countries of Europe. For a long while they were looked upon in monasteries as a foolish and sinful luxury. An Englishman who traveled in Italy in the early part of the 17th century was pleased with the custom, seeing that all men's fingers are not alike clean, as he said pathetically, and he brought home one of these new implements for his own use, whereupon one, a merry friend of his, persisted in calling him the fursifer or fork-bearer. For folk who were not fork-bearers, water and towels were passed around several times during a feast. The table linen was clean and plentiful, but the floor was covered with rushes, with bones and other refuse, and perhaps had not been swept for twenty years. A feast in a nobleman's castle was a grotesque medley of splendor and filth. No entertainment was looked upon as complete without music. This was provided by minstrels. They used a sort of violin, and also the harp, lute, guitar, bagpipe, flute, and double flute, horn, and trumpet, and sometimes the drum, tambourine, cymbals, and hand-bells. A noble usually had one or more minstrels in his service who wore at their girdles his badge, a little scuch and engraved with his coat of arms. While the great folk feasted, the minstrels played and sang, sometimes in their own gallery, sometimes on less formal occasion from seats on the floor, or even on the edge of the table. They sang merry little ballads and favorite bits from the longer poems, glorifying the noble deeds of heroes, and they also gave long recitations from the romances that the people of those times found so thrillingly entertaining. Besides the minstrels who were members of noble households, there were also the wandering singers, some of good family, who became minstrels for a time in order to gratify a taste for roving. Many of these had real talent, and they roamed through the lands, sure of a friendly greeting, a cup of wine, and a generous meal wherever they might go. If the minstrel songs were pleasing to the Lord of the castle, the singer went away rejoicing in a goodly sum of money. If neither the Lord nor his guests were liberally inclined, many minstrels were not above stopping in the midst of their song or story and saying, if you wish to hear any more of this poem, you must make haste to open your purses. Minstrels were free to go where they would, for all classes of people welcome them. It is told of Alfred the Great that he disguised himself as a wandering singer, and went fearlessly into the camp of his enemies. Whether this is doubtful or not in the case of Alfred, it was certainly true in many other cases, for at the sound of a harp or violin the good folk of the Middle Ages seemed to lay aside all caution and forget all danger. Besides music, other entertainment was provided for the guests of these banquets by jugglers or sleight of hand performers who went through acrobatic feats and the old tricks of balancing weights on long poles, tossing up balls and keeping several in the air at the same time, exhibiting trained bears and carrying on any sort of jesting that seemed to amuse their audience. A similar entertainment was provided by the fool of the castle, for kings and wealthy men were in the habit of keeping a jester who was known by that name. He often wore a cap and bells or a costume half one color and half another, or even shaved half his hair and half his beard to suit the rather crude ideas of what was considered comical. His joking was frequently coarse and rough, but it was to the point for only a keen shrewd man could play well the part of the fool. In Shakespeare's dramas it happens more than once that the fool manifests more closeness of observation and more common sense than anyone else in the play. Among these strolling companies of singers and jugglers there were also women dancers who met with great favor. The popular notion of a dexterous dancer was one who could support herself on her hands while her feet were high up in the air. If she could rest her hands on two swords and still maintain her equilibrium that was indeed skill and the spectators shouted their applause and threw their coins with delight. But the hall was far more than a mere place of feasting. Here sat the lady of the castle and her maidens, daughters of other noble families who had come to her to learn housewifery, just as their brothers had come to her husband to learn to become knights. These young girls were taught to manage a household, to sew an embroider, to card wool and spin in weave. They learned to say the prayers of the church, to sing, and to play simple accompaniments on the harp or vial. A little of astronomy, too, they learned, enough at least to name a few of the constellations, possibly a little of reading and writing, and more than a little of falconry. They must ride well, of course, for to make a poor appearance in the hunting field or in practicing the mystery of rivers would be indeed a disgrace. One thing they were taught with a special thoroughness, and that was enough of surgery and medicine and nursing to care for a wounded knight. Somewhat of warfare, too, they must know, for when the Lord of the castle was away it was his wife who must command the men at arms and either save or lose her home. The girls of the castle played checkers, chess, batgammon and battle-door and shuttlecock. They had their pet birds, magpies, larks, and sometimes parrots or pop-n-jays as they were called. Falcons were pets as well as hunters, and often made their entrance into society perched upon the wrists of their mistresses. The maidens of the Middle Ages liked to go on picnics, to dance, and to wear their rest-clothes. They enjoyed putting on jeweled belts and pretty ornaments and soft furs and dainty silks just as much as any girls of today. And they were just as delighted when there was to be a tournament as girls are today at the prospect of any entertainment. All sorts of folk came into the hall. In many places the poor of the neighborhood came every morning to ask for bread. If any fighting was near at hand, and the chief business of the time was fighting and hunting, a wounded man often made his way to the castle to beg for help and care. Sometimes, as has been said, a knight errant called to the porter at the gate and bade him bear a friendly challenge to the other knights within the walls. Then followed a delightful confusion. The lists were staked out in some meadow near the castle, or perhaps in the outer court. The crowd of followers and dependents of the Lord flocked about the ropes, and the ladies of the castle waved bright-colored scarfs from windows and battlements. Vassals, or those who held land of the master of the castle on condition of service, came to pay homage, that is, to kneel before him, their hands clasped in his, and promised to be faithful to him. Traveling merchants came to open their packs and reveal the dazzling fabrics of the east. Pilgrims who had wandered through many lands in order to visit some holy place were always going to and fro and always welcome. When ten or eleven o'clock had come, the horn was blown, the long tables were spread, and all gathered around them, whether rich or poor, noble or simple. Those to whom special honor was to be shown were seated above the salt, that is, near the Lord's end of the table, and separated from the common folk by an elaborate salt-seller. After the meal there were games, chess, backgammon, cards, and checkers, and also music and dancing. Every visitor had some story to tell, the dogs lay about the hearth, and now and then one pricked up his ears and wagged his tail sleepily when he heard his master praise some exploit of his in the hunt. The flames blazed up merrily, and the gloomy hall became bright and cheerful. It was the very heart of home, and when the wounded night lay dying in some foreign land, it was his own hall, which he should never see again, of which he thought with eager longing.