 Greek Lessons 11-20 by W. H. Morris Read for the LibriVox Language Learning Collection, Volume 2 This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org Recording by Nicholas James Bridgewater Lesson 11 Good Virtuous Brave Masculine Arathos Feminine Arathi Neuter Arathon Bright Splendid Masculine Lombros Feminine Lombra Neuter Lambron Warm Hot Masculine Thermos Feminine Thermi Neuter Thermon Light Lamp Masculine Lichnos Lampstand Feminine Lichnia Dress Outer Garment Neuter Imation Sun Masculine Ilios Moon Feminine Selini Star Neuter Astron Os As How Os Alah Before a Vowel Al But Alah Al Ine Infinitive of Imi to be Ine O Theos Agathos Esti Ke Dikeos Os Kalos Estin O Ilios Is Selini Lampra Este Ke Kali Lichnia O Thermi Alah Lampra Esti O The Isin O Arthos Ke O Inos O Kenos Arthos Thermos Esti Pou Estin I Selini I Kali Os Lampron Astron Eki Isin O Lichnos Ke Ilichnia To Imation Lampron Ine Os O Ilios Kalos Estin O The Ine Give the Derivation of Lamp Astronomy and Thermo in Thermometer Twelve There are five cases Nominative, Vocative, Accusative, Genitive and Dative The Vocative is commonly the same as the Nominative The Article Singular The Masculine Nominative Or Feminine Nominative E Neuter Nominative To The Singular Accusative Masculine Don Accusative Feminine Dean Accusative Neuter To Masculine Genitive To Feminine Genitive This Neuter Genitive To To or For The Masculine Dative To Feminine Dative Thi Neuter Dative To Plural Masculine Nominative E Feminine Nominative E Neuter Nominative The Masculine Accusative Thus Feminine Accusative Thus Neuter Accusative Da Masculine Genitive Ton Feminine Genitive Ton Neuter Genitive Ton Masculine Dative This Feminine Dative This Neuter Dative This Jewel Masculine Neuter And Accusative To Feminine Neuter And Accusative Da Masculine Nominative And Accusative To Feminine Nominative And Accusative Da Neuter Nominative And Accusative To Masculine Genitive Dative Thin Feminine Genitive And Dative Thin Neuter Accusative And Genitive Thin Rule 6 The article is used in Greek 1. To point out a particular object As Or Doulos Pistos Esti The slave is faithful That is, some particular slave 2. To denote a whole class Or general idea As Or Likos Thyrion Esti The wolf is a wild beast That is, all wolves 3. To distinguish the subject From the predicate As Thyrion Esti or Likos The wolf subject Is a wild beast predicate Lesson 13 Blessed, happy, masculine Macarius Feminine Macaria Neuter Macarion Strong, powerful Masculine Ischiros Feminine Ischira Neuter Ischiron God Masculine Theos Wisdom Feminine Sophia Animal Creature Neuter Zorn Slander Devil Masculine Diabolos Anger Feminine Orgi Weapon Neuter Oblon Men, indeed men They, but and they Omen, the one, omen Othe, the other, othe Imen, some, Imen Ithe, others, Ithe Theos in ologos Tis Ischiros estin os otheos Tis Ischiros estin os otheos Tis Estin otheos Ocirios estin otheos Odiabolos ischiros estin Alá, cacos Macarius estin odulos opistos Imen diki ayahthi estin Ide orgiu Ego men zon imi Ke oipos zon estin Odelikos thirion esti Imen othe isin Ide eki Pu estin isofia Oplu agathon estin isofia Lesson 14 There are three declensions of substantives The first declension, A nouns The first declension contains feminine nouns with nominative ending in a, e and masculine nouns in as, is feminine nouns in e singular, nominative, vocative forni, a voice, feminine forni, accusative forni, a voice, forni genitive, forniis other voice, forniis dative, forni, to a voice forni, plural nominative, vocative forne, voices, forne accusative, fornas voices, fornas genitive, fornon other voices, fornon dative, fornes, to voices fornes, dual nominative, vocative, accusative forna, to voices, forna genitive, dative, fornen of or to voices fornen Feminine nouns in a singular, nominative, vocative Thira accusative, thiran genitive, thiras dative, thira plural and dual as in forni, note as, a becomes is, i, when any consonant except ra precedes the second declension o nouns the second declension contains nouns with nominative in os generally masculine and in on, neuter singular, nominative ippos, a horse, masculine ippos, vocative ipe, o horse ipe accusative, ipon a horse, ipon genitive, ipu of a horse, ipu dative, ipo to a horse, ipo plural, nominative, vocative ipe, horses, ipi accusative, ipus horses, ipus genitive, ipon of horses, ipon dative, ipis to horses, ipis dual, nominative, vocative accusative, ipo to horses, ipo genitive, dative, ipin of or to horses, ipin singular, nominative vocative accusative, on an egg, neuter, on genitive, o of an egg, o dative o to an egg, o plural, nominative, vocative accusative, oa eggs oa, genitive, on of eggs, on dative, ois, to eggs, ois dual, nominative, vocative accusative, o to eggs, o genitive, dative, oin of or to eggs, oin decline, kirios dualos nimfi lira vivlion doron lesson 15 singular echi, he, she, it has echi thavmazi he, she, it admires, wonders at thavmazi plural, echusin they have echusin thavmazusin they admire wonder at thavmazusin rule 7 the verb agrees with its nominative in number and person rule 8 transitive verbs take an accusative of the nearer object note, in translating take the nominative or subject before the verb, the accusative or object after it o kirios echi ipon o kirii ipus echusin in infi, lira echi i lira echi phonaz o onos thamila thavmazi iliki ta arnia thavmazusi tis o thavmazi ton ilion ke tin selinin idulii arton echusi tis echi ta biblia toteknon tin sofian thavmazi idulii opla echusin o kirios tus nomus thavmazi tin men diiki thavmazi tin ve orginu lesson 16 singular dosi he she it will give plural dosusin they will give rule 9 the genitive is the case of the author or possessor and answers to the question of whom of what rule 10 the dative is the case of the recipient or a motor object and answers to the question to whom to what for whom the bible of the Lord is good the message of the prophet is good the idulii the Lord of the name dosusin the Lord gives the prophet the name of the God is right the origin of the bad the word the word the word of the word the word of the Lord is right the word of the word thavmazi the voice of the name thavmazi lesson 17 a collection of adjectives in os i on singular masculine galos galos masculine galay beautiful masculine accusative galon galon masculine genitive of a beautiful galu masculine dative galo feminine and amenative gali gali feminine vocative gali feminine accusative galin feminine genitive galis feminine dative gali to a beautiful gali neuton amenative galon beautiful galon neuter vocative gal phone neuter accusative galon beautiful galon genitive of a beautiful galu neuter dative galaws to a beautiful galaw plural, masculine, nominative, and vocative, galle, beautiful, galle, masculine accusative, galus, beautiful, galus, masculine genitive, galon, of beautiful, galon, masculine dative, galis, to beautiful, galis, feminine, nominative, and vocative, galle, beautiful, galle, feminine accusative, galus, beautiful, galus, feminine genitive, galon, of beautiful, galon, feminine genitive, galis, to beautiful, galis, neuter, nominative, vocative, galah, beautiful, galah, neuter accusative, galah, beautiful, galah, neuter genitive, galon, of beautiful, galon, neuter dative, galis, to beautiful, galis, dual, masculine, nominative, accusative, vocative, too beautiful galore masculine genitive dative kaleen of or too too beautiful kaleen feminine, nominative, accusative, vocative, galore too beautiful kala feminine, genitive, dative, kaleen of or too too beautiful kaleen neutern, nominative, accusative, vocative, kalo too beautiful kalo neuter, genitive, dative, kaleen of or too too beautiful kaleen adjectives ending in os, a, on decline their feminine like decline, kakos, mikros, ayos, rule 11 adjectives agree with their substantives in gender, number and case rule 12, neuter plurals commonly take a singular verb as the eggs are small, otti, for because, otti ev, adverb well, well done, ev i is chiri, douli, elichnie, lambre, isan ode isin, ipi, kali, imen, kali isin, idhe, kaki inomi tu theyu, dikei isin, efone, tis, mikras, liras, kale isi tathiria is hira, estin, agii, esteste, otti, ego, agios ta erga tu theyu, kala estin, os lambra, astra, i kiri, pisthus, doulos, ehusin inymfi mikran, lyran, ehi, ev, doule, agathe, ke pisthe, o kirios, oplon, to pistho, dulo, dosi, torrodho, eston, galo, tas galas, dolas, thavmasi lesson 18 note rama before rama, kapa, hi, ksi is pronounced as ni, as spongos, sponge, spongos, encomion, encomium, encomion, bronjos, throat, bronjos, larynx, windpipe, larynx, wise, masculine, sofos, feminine, sofi, neuter, sofon, foolish, masculine, moros, feminine, mora, neuter, moron, rich, masculine, blusios, feminine, blusia, neuter, blusion, poor, masculine, ptochos, feminine, ptochi, neuter, ptochon, messenger, angel, masculine, angelos, a message, feminine, angelia, little child, neuter, pedion, man, human being, masculine, antropos, anchor, feminine, angira, ship, neuter, plion, rule 13 adjectives are used as substantives the word antropos etc being understood as ossofos, the wise man, ossofos, ossofos, vivlion, ehi, to pedio, vivlion, dosi, ossofos, i plusii, doulos, ehusin, i ptochi, arton, ukehusin, o plusios, artus, tis ptochis, dosi, antropos, tis plusios, in, i angelia, ton angelon, pisti, in, i angelii, tu, deu, agii, isi, tis estis ossofos, os otheos, o kirios, dosi, sofian, taplia, micras, angiras, ehi, ovios ton antropon, ukesti macros, give the derivation of angel, anchor, sofist, larynx, bronchitis, hippodrome, dromos, place for running, course, dromos, lesson 19, singular, masculine, nominative, meras, great, meras, masculine, vocative, mera, o great, mera, masculine, accusative, meran, great, meran, masculine, genitive, miralu, of great, miralu, masculine, dative, miralo, too great, miralo, feminine, nominative, mirali, great, mirali, feminine, vocative, merali, o great, merali, feminine, accusative, meraline, great, meraline, feminine, genitive, miralis, of great, miralis, feminine, dative, mirali, too great, mirali, neuter, nominative, mera, great, mera, neuter, vocative, mera, o great, mera, neuter, accusative, mera, great, mera, neuter, genitive, miralu, of great, miralu, neuter, dative, miralo, too great, miralo, plural, nominative, mirali, feminine, mirale, genitive, mirala, etc., like the plural and dual of galos, singular, masculine, nominative, vocative, bolis, much, bolis, masculine accusative, bolin, much, bolin, masculine, genitive, bolu, of much, bolu, masculine, dative, bolo, too much, bolo, feminine, nominative, vocative, boli, much, boli, feminine, accusative, bolin, much, bolin, feminine, genitive, bolis, of much, bolis, feminine, dative, boli, too much, boli, neuter, nominative, vocative, boli, much, boli, neuter, accusative, boli, much, boli, neuter, genitive, bolu, of much, bolu, neuter, dative, bolo, too much, bolo, plural, masculine, nominative, boli, feminine, nominative, boli, neuter, nominative, bolah, etc., like the plural of galos, lesson 20. First masculine, brotos, feminine, broti, neuter, broton, last masculine, eschatos, feminine, eschati, neuter, eschaton, ancient, masculine, ancient masculine, archaeos, feminine, archaea, neuter, archaeon, time, masculine, chronos, beginning, rule, feminine, archaei, plain, neuter, bevion, word, saying, discourse, masculine, logos, day, feminine, imera, thorn, point, neuter, gendron, en, in, with dative, en, bros, too, towards, with accusative, bros, otheos, estin, obrotos, ke, oeschatos, megal, esti, ta, erga, tu, kiriu, logi, tu, deu, agi, isi, poli, esonde, broti, eschati, ke eschati, broti, ipon, megan, ehi, ta, roda, ehi, gendra, pola, entopedio, isan, tiria, pola, ke, megal, ilogi, ton, archaeon, sofi, isan, estin, ora, broti, tis, imeras, o chronos, macros, esti, polin, inon, to, megal, o, kirio, dosi, o, dulos, en, archi, in, ologos, ke ologos, in, bros, don, theon, ke, theos, in, ologos. Logos, joined to another word, has sometimes the wider signification of knowledge, science. Give the derivation of theology, geology, astrology, biology, chronology, psychology, zoology, archaeology, logic, chronic, chronicles, center, arch, a prefix signifying ruling chief, in archbishop, archangel, etc., poli, in polytheism, theos, etc., megatherium, omega, end of greek lessons 11 to 20 by w h morris, recording by nicolas james bridgewater. lesson one of new first spanish book by james h warman, read for the livery box language learning collection volume two. this is a livery box recording. all livery box recordings are in the public domain. for more information or to volunteer please visit liverybox.org new first spanish book by james h warman primer libro de español primera lección conjugación del verbo estar indicativo presente afirmativo singular yo estoy tú estás él está ella está usted está plural nosotros o nosotras estamos vosotros o vosotras estáis ellos están ellas están ustedes están interrogativo estoy yo estás tú está él o ella está usted singular estamos nosotros o nosotras estáis vosotros o vosotras están ellos o ellas están ustedes plural picture of a man picture of a chair picture of a man and a chair aquí está un hombre y una silla el hombre está en la silla picture of a book picture of a book on a table no señor el caballero está sobre la silla el caballero sobre la mesa picture of another book beneath a table la mesa y el otro el segundo está bajo o debajo de la mesa están los dos libros debajo de la mesa no señor el primero está sobre la mesa y el segundo está debajo de la mesa el caballero está sobre la silla está usted en una silla eduardo si señor estoy en una silla y los dos libros están en la mesa está carlos en una silla o en una mesa carlos está en una silla el caballero está en una silla y carlos está en otra silla aquí está una mesa y ahí está otra mesa ahí están dos sillas una silla para el caballero y otra para carlos está el segundo libro en una mesa no señor el segundo está debajo de una mesa y el primero está en la mesa está el segundo caballero en la silla no señor el primer caballero está en la silla estamos en la clase de español si señor estamos en la clase de español y estamos a la conclusión de la primera lección footnotes relating to words and phrases in primera lección page nine footnotes 1 lección pronuncia se le cio on la c se pronuncia antes o delante de e y de y como en z en inglés dos conjugación la j se pronuncia como la h inglesa con una fuerte aspiración y como el alemán en ag tres yo estoy tú estás él está ella está nosotros estamos vosotros estáis ellos están ellas están los pronombres yo tú él ella nosotros vosotros ellos ellas se omiten generalmente cuando no figuran de un modo enfático en la frase cuatro ella está pronuncia se ella la ella se pronuncia como doble l en william cinco usted está ustedes están la lengua castellana o española tiene un pronombre peculiar usted en singular y ustedes en plural este pronombre usted de la tercera persona se usa con más frecuencia que los otros por cortesía seis nosotros o nosotras vosotros o vosotras ellos o ellas el femenino de nosotros vosotros ellos es nosotras vosotras ellas siete nosotros o nosotras o es una conjunción ocho estoy yo están ustedes la ortografía española requiere el signo inverso de la interrogación al principio de una frase o oración un page 10 footnotes uno un hombre una silla un es un artículo el artículo indefinido o indeterminado un es el masculino una el femenino compare note seven dos una silla pronuncia se si ya tres el caballero la mesa él es el artículo definido o determinado masculino la el femenino cuatro si señor no señor si es el adverbio de afirmación no el adverbio de negación cinco un hombre y una silla y es una conjunción seis señor corresponde a la palabra francesa messieurs o a la inglesia sir el femenino es señora la n se pronuncia como gn en francés o ni en inglés como por ejemplo onion pronuncie se señor y señora siete aquí está otra mesa y otro libro otra es el femenino del adjetivo masculino otro el adjetivo es variable en español y concuerda de concordar con el sustantivo en género y en número page 11 footnotes uno la pronunciación de bajo es va jo la jota se pronuncia como la h aspirada en inglés o ch en alemán ah compare se página 9 número 2 2 el primer libro primer es el adjetivo numeral masculino abreviado de primero tres están los dos libros debajo de la mesa los es el plural del artículo definido el y las es el plural de la cuatro allí están dos sillas en español el plural de los nombres se forma generalmente agregando una s o es al singular como por ejemplo silla sillas papel papeles cinco aquí está una mesa y ahí está otra mesa allí es lo contrario de aquí y más distante end of primera lección recording by michel mon lesson two of the new first Spanish book by james h warman read for the LibriVox language learning collection volume two this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox dot org recording by michel mon new first Spanish book by James h warman second lesson second lesson indicative present of the verb ser affirmative singular yo soy tú eres él es ella es ustedes plural nosotros somos vosotros soys ellos son ellas son ustedes son interrogativo soy yo eres tú es él es ella es usted somos nosotros soys vosotros son ellos son ellas son ustedes picture of a king on a throne aquí está un rey está el rey en una silla no el rey está en un trono qué es trono un trono es un asiento es una silla un asiento sí una silla es un asiento para una persona y un trono es para un rey picture of a sofa picture of three men es picture of a new house yo estoy en una casa es la casa nueva sí la casa es nueva y magnífica picture of an old house en español nuevo o es nuevo el libro en español sí el libro en español es nuevo y el libro en inglés es viejo y los libros en francés los libros en francés son viejos footnotes relating to words and phrases in segunda lección page 12 footnotes uno indicativo presente del verbo ser estar se usa cuando la idea expresada por el substantivo adjetivo o participio se consideran como una idea de estado transitorio o accidental o cuando indica la situación que ocupan las personas o cosas u objetos ser denota la existencia y en general lo esencial o permanente de personas o cosas page 13 footnotes uno y un sofa es un asiento para dos tres o cuatro personas el plural de los sustantivos terminados en vocal no acentuada se forma en s un libro dos libros una persona dos personas y con la sílaba es en vocal acentuada o en consonante profesor profesores ruby rubies dos uno es americano el artículo indeterminado se omite delante de un adjetivo de nación los adjetivos de nación usan letras minúsculas en español y no mayúsculas tres y uno es francés pronuncie se francés la c ante las vocales e o y se pronuncia como una th en inglés cuatro son los libros españoles españoles es el plural de español cinco es la casa nueva nueva y vieja son femeninos de nuevo y viejo el femenino de los adjetivos terminados en o termina en a compare page 10 note 7 and page 14 note 1 footnotes for page 14 uno es una casa vieja no te sé la posición del adjetivo que en español está generalmente después o lo contrario de antes del nombre o sustantivo dos vieja es lo contrario de nueva lo es el artículo neutro y precede adjetivos adverbios etc tres es nuevo el libro en español en esta construcción el nominativo está al fin de la frase esta construcción es más elegante más es el comparativo de mucho cuatro los libros en francés son viejos el plural de los adjetivos se forma como el plural de los nombres see page 18 note 2 and compare page 13 note 1 and page 15 note 2 end of segunda lección recording by michelmon new method of learning french by jean gustav kittles read for the libybox language learning collection volume 2 this is a libybox recording all libybox recording sign the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit libybox.org part second progressive lessons lessons one two three one première leçon one the names of inanimate objects have a gender assigned them by custom livre book and free fruit are masculine and leçon lesson and pom apple feminine the article the is le for the masculine and la for the feminine the book le livre the fruit le fruit the lesson la leçon the apple la pomme two i je personal pronoun first person singular have first person singular first person singular eh active verb remark one in words of one syllable ending with e mute the e is dropped before a vowel or silent h and an apostrophe is put in its place as i have j you you personal pronoun second person have second person have active verb you have remark two when the pronoun subject stands after the verb it is joined to it by hyphen have i age have you avez vous have you the book avez vous le livre yes sir oui monsieur no sir non monsieur vocabulaire 1 the left hand side in the vocabularies is reserved for masculine the right for feminine nouns the book le livre the bread le pain the fruit le fruit the glass le verre sir monsieur the lesson la leçon the meat la viande the apple la pomme the cup la tasse madam mrs madame and e conjunction or ou conjunction yes we adverb no non adverb analyze passing one j'ai le verre tout vous avez la tasse exercice 1 one avez vous le livre two oui monsieur j'ai le livre three avez vous le fruit four oui madame j'ai le fruit five avez vous le verre ou la tasse six j'ai le verre et la tasse seven avez vous le pain eight non monsieur j'ai la viande nine age la pomme ten oui monsieur vous avez la pomme thème un one have you the fruit two i have the apple three have i the book four yes sir you have the book five have you the bread or the meat six i have the bread and the meat seven have you the glass eight no madame i have the cup two deuxième leçon three a adjectives not ending in emute add e for the feminine as small little petit feminine petite large tall grand feminine grande the small glass le petit verre the small cup la petite tasse b adjectives ending in emute are the same for both genders as the second book le deuxième livre the second lesson la deuxième leçon four what que pronoun what have you what which quel feminine quel indefinite adjective which glass quel verre which cup quel tas my mon feminine ma possessive adjective my glass mon verre my cup ma tas your votre for both genders possessive adjective your glass votre verre your cup votre tas vocabulaire deux the paper le papier the letter la lettre the pencil le crayon the pen la plume my hat mon chapeau ma cravate ma cravate small little petit adjective large tall grand adjective first premier première adjective second deuxième adjectives what que pronoun what which quel quel adjective my moma adjective your votre adjective analyse deux one quai je deux quel plume avez vous exercice deux one qu'avez vous deux j'ai mon chapeau et ma cravate three avez vous le crayon ou la plume four j'ai le crayon et la plume five quelle vers avez vous six j'ai le petit verre seven quelle tasse avez vous la petite ou la grande eight j'ai ma grande tasse nine ai je le papier ou la lettre ten vous avez la lettre et j'ai le papier 11 quel livre avez vous 12 j'ai le premier livre 13 avez vous la première leçon ou la deuxième 14 j'ai la deuxième thème deux one what have you two what have i three you have my paper and my letter four which pencil have you five i have my pencil and your pen six which pen have you seven have you the large glass or the small eight i have the small glass and the large cup nine you have the first lesson then i have the first and the second 11 i have your hat 12 you have my cravate three troisième leçon five a the article in the singular drops the vowel a or e before another vowel and before silent h s the money l'argent for le argent the coat l'habit for le habbit the plate l'assiette for la assiette b mon is used instead of ma before a feminine noun beginning with a vowel or with silent h as my plate mon assiette for ma assiette my pretty plate ma jolie assiette six not no pas adverb of negation no is placed before the verb and pa after it as i have not je n'ai pas you have not have i not neige pas have you not n'avez vous pas seven good bon feminine bonne big large course gross feminine gross the good paper le bon papier the good pen la bonne plume the large fruit le gros fruit the big apple la gross bomb the large paper le grand papier the coarse paper le gros papier vocabulaire 3 the money l'argent the money the change la monnaie the coat l'habit the dress la robe the cloth le dra the stuff the cloth lit off the dish le plat the plate l'assiette the knife le couteau the fork la fourchette good bon bonne adjective big large course gros gross adjective pretty jolie adjective but my conjunction analyze 3 one j'ai ma bonne plume 2 je n'ai pas votre crayon exercice 3 one qu'avez vous 2 j'ai l'argent et la lettre 3 avez vous l'habit four je n'ai pas l'habit five avez vous le plat et l'assiette six j'ai le plat et la fourchette mais je n'ai pas l'assiette seven quel couteau avez vous eight j'ai mon joli couteau nine avez vous le bon dra ten non monsieur j'ai le gros dra 11 quel est off avez vous 12 j'ai la grosse et off 13 avez vous ma jolie tasse fontine je n'ai pas votre jolie tasse 15 quel robe age 16 vous avez ma bonne robe 17 avez vous ma monnaie 18 je n'ai pas votre monnaie thème 3 one what have i two you have my pretty dress three have you the money four i have the money but i have not the coat five have you the course cloth six i have the good cloth and the cool stuff seven have you my pretty dish eight i have the fork and the plate but i have not the dish nine have you my large apple ten i have your large knife but i have not your apple 11 you have my good stuff 12 have i my change 13 you have your change but you have not the fruit end of lessons one two three of new method of learning the french language by Jean-Claude Kittles sentence construction from a primer of persian containing selections for reading and composition with the elements of syntax by gsa ranking read for the LibriVox language learning collection volume two this is a LibriVox recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain for more information or to volunteer please visit LibriVox.org read by Nicholas James Bridgewater two sentence construction the subject mob tada will be a noun or its equivalent and will stand as a rule first in the sentence followed by the predicate khabar for example zeid ko emast zeid is standing the predicate may consist of a verb and a predicate adjective as rostam zurovarbud rostam was strong or again of a verb and a predicate noun referring to the subject as qalbaad paud shahbud albaad was a king or again of a verb and an object as sayyawd shirakosh the hunter killed the tiger or again of a verb and its object together with a predicate noun or predicate adjective referred to the object as the unfortunate man abused the king the subject may not need expression by a particular word in cases where the termination of the verb sufficiently expresses the subject or in cases where the subject is indefinite as porsid he asked goftand they said bano kardeand they indefinite have built ovardeand they indefinite have said bedonand let them indefinite know matloum mishavad it appears concord the concord of the verb with the subject is simple that is to say generally speaking a singular subject requires a verb in the singular and a plural verb follows a plural subject as paudishaw ashawrat karde the king made a sign baraud aran hasad bordand the brother's bore envy khalharon ashgeri stand his sister's wept it should be observed that valve following khe as in khalhar is not pronounced a plural inanimate subject however takes a singular verb as ketalbhaar chop mishavad books are printed though in such cases also in modern persian more especially the verb may occasionally be put in the plural as batzifavvavrehaa baoham boland mishodand several fountains were playing at once if however the plural inanimate subject be an arabic plural the verb must always be in the singular as ashjar par ovardeast the trees are in fruit occasionally also a plural animate subject takes a singular verb in modern colloquial persian as zhanomardes yawdi paydawbud many men and women appeared when the subject has a numerical adjective qualifying it the verb should be in the singular by classical usage as panjohnafar maj ruha gashed fifty people were wounded sometimes however in modern usage this rule is not observed as for instance devist si sad nafar sarichubhaa golbaste dardast gerefte budand two or three people were holding in their hands nose gaze tied to sticks the singular verb is however more elegantly used when however the verb of the numeral adjective is used to denote large collective numbers the verb must be in the plural as sadha mardom omadand hundreds of people came a collective noun in the singular takes a plural verb as halb as azobito berahand two or more personal subjects especially when pronouns take the verb in the plural as I and the emperor talked for a while man and he went two or more impersonal subjects take the verb in the singular as there is a garden a reservoir and a terrace mat even though thou possessest riches and honor and lands and merchandise the oblique cases the object of a verb is generally put in the accusative case formed by adding raw to the crude form of the noun or its equivalent as they arrested the robber they brought them all to the court of the king in cases where there can be no doubt as to the object raw may be dispensed with as the king kissed his head and eyes the genitive case is expressed in persian most commonly by the use of the es or fat which is the name given to the short vowel placed between the two nouns between which the relationship is desired to be expressed as king of Iran the teacher's book the date of case is expressed in two ways a by adding raw to the crude form of the noun the king had no thought of him b by means of the preposition he went to another country he gave the book to the boy this mode of expressing the dative is convenient in cases where the accusative of the object has to be expressed by the use of raw as in the last example the vocative case is formed in two ways a by placing the interjection a before the nominative singular or plural as b by affixing an aleph to the nominative singular as oh god this aleph is called the aleph of calling the ablative case is formed by the use of the preposition as he went out of the house he took money from me the locative case is formed by using one of the prepositions in the city of Baghdad fallen to the ground in modern colloquial Persian the locative is very commonly expressed by the crude form of the noun alone with no preposition I had taken my horse to water him at the river the instrumental case is most conveniently expressed by using the preposition he killed with the sword definition of the noun there is no such thing as an article in Persian definitiveness being obtained by omitting to affix to the noun the sign of indefiniteness this sign is in the form of the letter ye and is called in Persian the yaw of indefiniteness thus they asked a wise man omitting the ye and writing the meaning would be the wise man after the letter he this ye takes the form hamzeh as bandai a slave the government of the verb the transitive verb in Persian usually takes an accusative of the object as I have heard of a king's son this man abused the king many verbs however are constructed with prepositions the king looked upon him as man and they took it from me he mounted his horse verbs of giving take an accusative of the object and a dative of the person as do not give your friend so much power if however it is essential to define the object by the use of the dative is expressed by the preposition I gave the horse to Yusuf and the mare to his son impersonal verbs are also used in Persian and are used only in the third person singular those in most common use are the verbs to be necessary or proper and to be fitting which make and respectively if the person is expressed it more commonly precedes the verb in the dative case with raw as the king ought or must but it may be put in the subjective case as you must buy 10 asses loads of apples when the person is not expressed the construction will be as follows one should know that what should be done where the apocapated infinitive is used or the verb is used absolutely or again the aorist may be used the person being indicated by the verb itself as I must go the third person singular of the aorist present past past imperfect or conditional of may be used in this impersonal construction as he ought to have gone the third person singular of the aorist or present of the verb to be able is also used impersonally with the apocapated infinitive as in various ways which it is impossible to describe one could never act in such a way with regard to construction of sentences an important point to remember is that in many cases where in English a passive construction is used this is not permissible in persian for instance the observatory tower is built upon a high hill will in persian appear thus that is they have built the observatory tower on a high hill for the rest the construction of the persian sentence offers no special difficulties the concord of the persian adjective the absence of any grammatical gender in persian is a great assistance to the beginner the adjective is indeclinable and undergoes no change for the sex of the qualified word thus nick good a good man mar de nick or nick mard good men mardomone nick or nick mardomone it will thus be seen that the adjective may proceed or follow the noun with this difference that when the adjective follows the noun it must be connected with it by an easel fat the comparison of adjectives is affected by adding tar for the comparative and tareen for the superlative as khal neye man bozork tar as khal neye ust my house is larger than his khal neye ghaazi bozork tareene khaune haost the ghaazi's house is the largest of all the houses or we may use another construction for the superlative and say as ha me betar best of all the negative nahi negative statements are made by prefixing nah to the verb paro daram naraft my brother did not go prohibitions nafi are implied by the prefix ma to the imperative ham tu sochon magu do not say such a thing in modern colloquial persian prohibition is expressed more commonly by prefixing na to the imperative on jar narrow do not go there the negative of the infinitive is no no guftan not to say zekr no kardan not to mention the infinitive the infinitive is used a as subject has more than at beh ke mardom ozari thy death is better than the oppression of mankind be as a noun equivalent in any case as the art of wrestling the advantages which are reaped from their well-doing see as object depending on certain verbs kas no one will dare to practice tyranny and high-handedness d as one of two objects depending on certain verbs they would not allow him to present himself before the king e as a verbal adjective denoting fitness necessity etc with the affix e called the infinitive is used to denote suitability propriety sufficiency etc har aunchik kardan i bud whatever was to be done the water of this stream is not fit to drink i have not cash sufficient for my journey to tehran konditional sentences kondition may refer either to past or future time consequently two constructions occur in persian for cases in which both protasis and apodosis relate to bygone time the tense called by persian chromarians the conditional past is used in both clauses as had this man been wise his business with a fool would not have come to this pass this is the almost invariable construction in classical persian in modern persian however the aorist is sometimes used in the apodosis agar bandi ne mitavanestam in karbe konam je je hat daust ke kabul konam fa ocher ham sharm shor shavam if i had not been able to carry out this work why should i accept it and be put to shame in the end where both protasis and apodosis relate to future time it is most usual to employ the preterite in the former clause and the future simple or compound in the latter clause simple or compound the simple future denotes immanence or proximity the compound future a more remote contingency in the latter clause as if my brother comes i will tell him in such a case as this however the simple future may be used in both clauses as the following is an example of the use of the preterite in the protasis followed by the compound remote future in the apodosis if i should have to stay in the city i will certainly have the honor of paying you a visit the conditional in a negative proposition is similarly constructed they did not return it to him otherwise i would have written a special message it will be observed that in this example the preterite is employed in the apodosis instead of the past conditional this is not infrequent or ratio recta reported speech as a general rule the words of the speaker are quoted in the original form introduced by ke called by persian grammarians the explicatory cough thus he asked what was the matter with him literally he asked saying what is his condition end of sentence construction from a primer of persian containing selections for reading and composition with the elements of syntax by gsa ranking read by nicholas james bridgewater in london england