 Yesterday we looked at how linguistic theory works around acquisition of language that is i language and how it how and what constitutes part of what we know as knowledge of language. Today we are going to look at the components of a sentence in little bit more details. So in the study of language there are three main areas and most of the significant questions or even lesser significant questions of scientific nature have been asked in these areas and these are the areas of structure, acquisition and change. And like I have mentioned it to you we are looking at structure is that clear? Out of the three the reason why we are talking about linguistic structure or the structure of a sentence is structure has been favorite area for many people. Most of the questions as I mentioned to you most of the interesting questions have been asked in linguistics that are related to a structure that is answer to those questions we get from the study of a structure of language. Have you had these names that you see on your screen? Panini, Bloomfield, Ferdinandis Essoor, Martine, Chomsky, Chomsky I discussed yesterday how about other names have you heard these names? How many of them? Panini is. In Indian context he is very famous. Why is he famous? He basically codified Sanskrit language in a written form the grammar of Sanskrit language. Actually you are right that his study is about Sanskrit but when he studies Sanskrit he talks about the structure of language and that structure is applicable to language in general that is there is a difference between language and Sanskrit. There is a difference between language in Hindi and language in English. When we say Hindi, Sanskrit, English, Tamil, Telugu these are examples of language these are called a language and talking about language is about the structure of language. So Panini in a study of Sanskrit actually talks about structure of language at the level of words and I will show you more at the level. So these are the three different areas in this structure of language. So Panini has studied all three of them and has talked about composite discussion of language. Anybody remembers his famous contribution? One famous book that is synonymous with Panini now the name of that book is anybody last minute and this word itself means eight chapters and in eight chapters alone this book is not more than twenty pages twenty-five pages. In these twenty-five pages eight chapters he has only written rules what we can now say equations or algorithms and that describes language at the level of sounds words and sentences. This is why I have put Panini there Panini, Ferdinand Disso, Bloomfield, philosophers like Martinet and linguist Chomsky. These are the people who have who have studied structure of language and Panini has studied at all three levels but Chomsky and others have studied language only at the level of sentence. However, there are contributions of Panini of studies of sounds, sound patterns of English and others and its implications for structure of word and morphology as well which is morphology. So let us look at sentence now in little bit more details. So like we discussed Panini let me tell you one more important thing about Chomsky and linguistics. When Chomsky talks about eye language he talks about his object of a study is a sentence and he talks about ideal native speaker. Anybody knows about this ideal native speaker? No. An ideal native speaker for a for a Chomsky is it it first of all it does not exist in real world. The ideal native speaker is who speaks a language. If we talk we talk about English the person speaks English and speaks nice sentences like sentences like these the door is open. This is a pen this is a phone these kinds of sentences he speaks therefore we say an ideal native speaker takes a chunk as a sentence and idealizes it. However in real world we do not speak idealized sentences and I will show you what I mean by that. This is an ideal sentence an example of an ideal sentence. What does this sentence mean? What does this sentence mean? The door is open. A state of an object. Tell me a simpler meaning what it means. This is a this is a door right what is it right now closed. When the two sides of it are apart from one another that is what probably you mean the state of object and we say it is open for for Chomsky linguistics the important thing is to study the components of sentences which is part of I language. When we bring E language into which is that is particularly discourse in it this sentence may have different meanings. What kind of meanings do you think this sentence can have do you want me to give you context for that or can you give me some couple of different meanings of this sentence. There is an opportunity in in that example the door is being used as a metaphor for opportunity right let us talk about physical reality this is closed right now someone knocks at it right and you say the door is open what does it mean in that context you can you can come in right you are inside the door right now you are inside and someone tells you the door is open what does that mean it could mean go and close the door it could also mean right just get out right when the person entered the door and is standing near the door and then you say the door is open then it means please close it before you enter it is still remained open this is called interpretations and this is part of discourse. What I am trying to tell you with this example is such things are not part of I language such things are not part of what we are going to discuss this structure of language and this is why probably it is sometimes called monotonous let us say what is it that we are going to going to talk about and see how this could be interesting as part of a sentence I have picked up a very small one the sentence is I like pizza and again a simple sentence everybody understands the meaning of this. Then if I ask you what I ask you about different components of this sentence like I like and pizza can you tell me little bit about different components of sentence what is I in this sentence subject and like a verb very nice and pizza object right how do you know that how do I know I is a subject in other words the question that I am asking is how do we know about subject how do we figure out that a particular component of a sentence is a subject. Action that is implied by the verb on something that is implied by the object like that. So someone some component which tells us about doing some action is a subject right in the previous sentence the door is open what is the subject I am not trying to prove that you are wrong I am only trying to give you a different example in the previous sentence the door is open what is the subject probably the door as a matter of fact it is difficult question for you to answer but let us take the door as the subject is the door doing anything right. So then how can we put this thing as a defining characteristic of subject when we are saying two contradictory features defining subject doing something and not doing something both can make a component subject do you see the contradiction we are going to talk about that but as part of your answer you are right I is the subject of this sentence like is the verb and pizza is the object before we go to subject object and verb I have put these two words subject and predicate have you heard of this word predicate and it that means predicate means let me please tell me the dictionary meaning of it first predicate anybody alright I think that is a difficult question to ask is it difficult to give a dictionary meaning of predicate it is difficult because I am also not going to give it to you the verb and the object that is precisely correct correct if we leave the subject out if we have figured out what is the subject of a sentence then everything else is the predicate true which essentially means that predicate includes verb and everything associated with the verb point number one and which also means if you look at it harder the subject is not part of predicate that is if there is a relationship between subject and the verb that relationship is additionally imposed that is not natural relationship between the two what I mean by that I am going to describe that to you in a moment but in order to get these two points it is important to at least take a look at these two terms subject and predicate is this point clear how the distinction how understanding the distinction between subject and predicate helps us understand that subject is an important component of a sentence but then it is not part of the predicate and everything else is part of predicate besides subject get this thing subject object and verb these are called grammatical relations in a sentence grammatical by grammatical relations I mean the following when I say okay let us say I like pizza this I said subject but this is a pronoun also this is a verb and this is an object but this is a noun too so and by pronoun what is the definition of a pronoun anybody any word that replaces a noun or any word that can come in place of noun so can we say the pronoun is also a type of noun right so it is a convenient way to make a distinction between a noun and a pronoun but eventually at the end of the day they are also nouns and they are different kind of a noun of course but they are a noun because a noun can very well come in this place when we say John likes pizza right now this is a noun when it is a noun and this one is a noun these are these are their categorical features that is by themselves they are nouns and grammatical relations are important in a sentence these nouns or pronouns receive grammatical relations only in a sentence get this point the grammatical relations are not important outside sentence that is there is nothing about this and this noun which makes it a subject it is simply the place in this in this sentence that makes this a subject or the place in the sentence place of this noun in this sentence which makes it a subject or which makes it an object get this that is what is the meaning of grammatical relations take the example of normal life we individually we are human beings right but when do relations become important we know about human relations right mother father brother sister that becomes relevant when we are looking at group family society right individually people are individual humans similarly these individual components of a sentence may be independently nouns verbs nouns pronouns adjectives such are their categorical features in a in a sentence they receive grammatical relations like subject object and making sense moving on talking about the structure of a structure of a sentence across the world across the languages of the world once a once again how many languages are there in the world any idea which means what I understand very little mathematics five digit means or ten thousand definitely not more than ten thousand anybody close to that I think I have mentioned this before that that makes it even more interesting do you know the total number of languages spoken in India somewhere seventeen hundred right alright I take this as seventeen hundred actually some records mention that is one thousand six hundred fifty two but nobody knows the exact number why not fifty three why fifty two nobody knows the exact number and a rough estimate tells us around five thousand five hundred languages are spoken all over the world which means more than or roughly one third of them are spoken in India out of all those languages these are the three different structures three common patterns that you find in in some languages you find order number one which is subject object and work in some languages you find order number two which is object sorry subject verb and object what is the difference between these two these two orders the first two go ahead please tell me the difference between order number one and order number two right so it is about the position of a verb so languages differ from one another depending upon the position of a verb in a sentence somebody said speak Telugu what is the order of the word verb in a Telugu sentence subject object and what is the order of a verb in a English sentence like I like pizza right and then the third order is verb subject and object which means depending upon the position of a verb in a sentence whether the verb is the final constituent of a sentence whether verb is middle middle middle component of a sentence or a verb is an initial component of a sentence there are three types of languages in the world in other words all the languages of the world can be divided into three these three major categories which we say verb final languages verb middle languages and verb initial languages you had question right very important very nice question when we have three components probably we can have more than three permutations three combinations that is not available in language more than these permutations or combinations are not available in the languages of the world I know I know hold on I am not trying to avoid the question all other orders that you find are called scrambling it is also possible to come up with a sentence in Telugu or for that matter in Hindi which begins with a verb that does not make Hindi or Telugu a verb initial language not only poetic liberty in normal conversation also we can use a sentence which can begin with a verb can you think of a sentence which begins with a verb in a normal conversation I know Hindi I can give you a Hindi example you understand Hindi I can say a sentence like this is a good sentence what is the position of a verb in these two sentences the initial one which does not make Hindi a verb initial language I can put a verb in the middle of the sentence as well in a language like Hindi Telugu or Tamil I do not know Tamil like therefore I cannot give you an example of it but you know Telugu can you think of a sentence in Telugu where verb comes in the middle now with the help of my example of Hindi sorry verb in the middle sentence means what I went to cinema verb in the middle sentence means what I went to cinema and well is went so you see but that is not the normal order of a Telugu sentence what will be the normal order of a Telugu sentence does that can I get an example from Malayalam also please same same sentence I went to cinema I went to cinema please give us the sentence first loudly loudly loudly you were saying say it again that is like saying cinema went which means the verb is the final component of this sentence now is a sentence possible with verb in the middle of it we can say that we do not say that that is not a normal order right what I am trying to see whether that is an acceptable order or not it may not be well acceptable in this example but you can very well come up with some other example where a verb in the middle of a sentence is acceptable the point that I am trying to make is that does not make Hindi Telugu Malayalam verb middle language or verb initial language similarly other than these three combinations are not possible and Sanskrit may have examples where a sentence begins with a verb but then Sanskrit is not a verb initial language and such possibilities of combinations in a real sentence in a in a language like Hindi Telugu Malayalam or Sanskrit this is called this is a special feature of language which is called a scrambling get it scrambling simply means putting words at different places these are called default order these are called default order when we make this order anything different that is called scrambling and that is a feature of all the languages of the world some languages are very rigid some languages do not allow a scrambling that easily others allow more frequently all South Asian languages from Kashmiri to Malayalam and Gujarati to Manipuri they allow a scrambling very easily a language like English on the other hand which is very well in Indian language to does not allow a scrambling that much we cannot say I cinema went in a normal order or in a in a scrambled order as well we cannot say that went to cinema people say where you understand what you wanted to say I went to cinema or something else but scrambling in a language like English is not that easy there are regions for that and we will talk about those regions some other time are the orders of words in a sentence clear there are three things that I want you to understand from this slide first about a sentence subject and predicate orders order of words in a sentence and then about grammatically relations clear we have we we looked at this this thing we discussed that predicate consists of everything else in a sentence which leaves us with a question what is a subject we tried to look at that as well that what makes a noun like John the subject of the sentence is an important question that we need to answer we will we will develop or evolve answer to this question what is a subject of a sentence throughout our discussions at this point I want to mention it to you that it is not an easy question to answer as you can see it is okay to say sometimes the agent of the action in the sentence is the subject of of the sentence that is one probable definition of subject of a subject in a sentence but that is that does not hold too long so we will we will keep looking at these things similarly what makes pizza an object of this object of this verb an object in this sentence is purely related to its position okay we will talk about that as well so in these two sentences that you see on your screen I like pizza and I teach linguistics to MA students every thing in red that you see is a predicate and I happens to be the subject okay so let us let us look at the next one before we look at other components of the sentence let me talk to you about words how do we define a verb anybody let me begin with a very simple question user how do we define a verb what is a verb is an action verb is a word that talks about some action in a sentence is that what you want to say okay very nice anything else anybody want to say about that that is the that is the physical description of a word in inside a sentence what is the role of a verb very nice so if we look at these sentence John likes a pizza in this sentence John and pizzas do not make a sentence right and individually they do they are not either subject or they are not object they are subject they are nouns they become a subject or an object around verb so verb is a very significant component of a sentence in other words sometimes verbs are said to be power house of a sentence that is everything else evolves around verb there are two types of words in general in all the languages of the world and these two types are as you can see here transitive words and intransitive words I have tried to define it little bit can I ask you what these two words mean again transitive and intransitive and I am particularly asking you about the dictionary meaning because I want to draw your attention to a very simple point that some some words in the study of a structure of language like predicate intransitive transitive are difficult to to describe through dictionary meanings so a transitive verb means what please transitions shows the meaning of the word transition such as please elaborate on transition object should accompany the words I mean I like it is not a complete object I like something can be anything these are something those are whatever true so if you take intransitive I sleep that completes the sentence I mean we do not need object further very nice do you understand what he is saying it is very nice description of it that a transitive verb necessarily requires an object and when we say necessarily requires an object that necessary requirement is about completion of the sentence a transitive verb which requires an object in the absence of the of such object does not give us a complete sentence like this one if we drop the object from the sentence like John likes pizza or I like pizza if I simply say I like this does not give you a complete meaning when I stop at this point I like probably you are waiting for me to complete it or if I do not then you can very well ask this question like what did not understand what you were what you are trying to say at the same time intransitive verbs are not do intransitive verbs do not need objects and which means again without objects they are complete when I when we say I am sleeping the you do not ask any further question you understand this sentence right but so that is okay but how do I know that a verb like sleep will not need an object or a verb like eat or read or like will need an object this also has relevance for teaching this teaching any language right you read what but you cannot ask you sleep what so essentially a transitive verb you can ask what at the end of a transitive verb but intransitive words will tend to answer questions like where and when you can say I slept in my room or I slept last night you cannot ask you slept what you can only ask you slept where or you slept how you slept when true do we understand this great answer great answer simple simple test if you can ask the question what with a verb take take any verb and if you can ask a question and that is a meaningful question then it is a transitive verb in other words if the question is meaningful probably you are going to get an answer also and the answer to that question will make it will become the object of that verb okay so you can ask this question ask a question here I like pizza I like what right answer to this question pizza dosa or anything else is the object of that that verb if a verb does not allow a question with what just with what it does not matter whether you can really make a question for that word or not no other question word is important if the verb does not allow you a question with what then it is an intransitive word again if the verb does not allow you a question with that with what probably you do not get an answer either so go what not a good question therefore you are not expecting any answer either which helps you conclude that this is an intransitive word so what are we doing with this question what basically what are we doing with this question what we are trying to figure out whether we whether the verb needs an object or not and only one question word which is what helps us figure this out that makes us find out about these about verbs whether a verb is transitive or an intransitive amazing this this test works for 99% of time sometimes it may not I can however that does not mean this is not a good test if it works for 99% of time it is good but it is important for us to know that it does not work everywhere I can give you one example I do not have it on the screen I can give you one example of the verb meet in English meet transitive or intransitive transitive why even if we use sentences like why do not we meet it is nothing but a form of object and verb again sorry object in the subject again anybody else anything no but suppose if it is a transitive word how do I know it is a transitive word this test does not work but then it does not answer the question what so if it is we are not contesting whether it it can be both or not taking it as an example of a transitive verb our test does not work here but it is it this definitely can be a transitive verb we can say I met with a doctor I cannot say I met when I say I met this is not a complete sentence see now I want to relate this to what I was discussing with you yesterday which is knowledge of language when this particular aspect of language is part of knowledge of language that is for native speakers they do not look at this question to make to make it certain that this is a transitive or one intransitive it is it is clear in their mind that this is a transitive verb this is an intransitive something else is intransitive when they say I met when someone tells the native speaker of English I met they immediately know that the sentence is not complete say it say it more and then we know that that is not an intransitive that is not an intransitive verb it is a transitive verb but this test does not work that is all I wanted to say that this does not work so sometimes objects may be of different nature that is all it means so not all this objects have to come out of the question what however now more than 99 percent of the time it works there are there are few more examples we can talk about them later before I go to the real structure of a sentence to show you phrase structure this is one more important thing to talk about which is part of the predicate so we looked at the verb there are two types transitive verbs intransitive verbs and verbs are central element of a sentence it is also called powerhouse all other elements develop around it great nice so let us talk about objects as well objects are as we have just seen objects are in a way a component that defines verb that defines type of a verb if they if we have an object it is a transitive verb if we do not have an object it is an intransitive verb therefore objects being part of predicate and closely related to verb is no surprise for us that we have just seen but they can be of different types and the two types that are very commonly known are called direct objects and indirect objects so can you tell me something about direct object or indirect objects again besides what is written on the screen how do we know about an object how do we know about an object whether an object is in direct object or indirect object and again the dictionary meaning of these two words direct and indirect does not help us much it is it is configurational relation to the verb and only the way these objects are related to a verb is what tells us about whether an object is direct object or indirect object the direct object follows the verb so does an indirect object but you added the word immediately the direct object immediately follows the verb great example and so in the hold on so I this distinction clear what you see on the screen in a sentence I teach linguistics to m a students linguistics is direct object and two m a students is indirect object that is just a broad distinction but I am glad you asked this you raised this question we can say I teach m a students linguistics in that sentence I teach m a students linguistics we still have m a students as indirect object and linguistics as direct object what that answers the question what exactly direct object will be the answer to the question what I am sorry you were saying something indirect object will be the answer to the question add something to the direct object it could be you are you are right it could be an answer to whom if you can ask this question for a subject sorry for a verb for example if I say I like pizza this sentence is good enough with a direct object this sentence does not need an indirect object so when I say I eat a pizza the question to whom is not relevant therefore this sentence is good enough with a direct object when a sentence needs both at a time direct object and indirect object that is when a verb needs both that type of verb has a different name and that name is what are the names that you have seen so far what are the types of verbs you have seen so far in transitive transitive and this type of verb is called di transitive so transitive verb is a verb when it needs one object di transitive is the one when it needs two so a verb like teach is a is type of a di transitive verb it needs two objects at a time so when I say I teach linguistics to a native speaker of English this is an incomplete sentence the same way I like is an incomplete sentence we need to say teach linguistics there is something missing this may not be intuitively available to us that is this distinction may not be intuitively available to someone who does not English need who does not speak English natively you understand what I am saying for lot of us who speak English as a second language I teach linguistics can be a good sentence therefore it may be difficult for us to find what is the incompleteness about this sentence so if we are unable to derive incompleteness about that sentence that is because we are not the native speakers of English however this sentence will remain incomplete if you do not put indirect object the order of direct object and indirect object is important but when they change their position they do not change their grammatical relations and the answer and what you said about answer to the question what is the actual meaning of what I mean when I have put here close to verb and away from the verb so the object that is an answer to the question what is the object that is close to the verb again it has one more meaning close to the verb away from the verb that I will show you when I talk about configurational relationship between these components for the syntax of it any any other question that you may have about these things no in that case we will stop here and we talk about configurational relationship of elements in a sentence tomorrow.