 Chapter 8 of the Piano Forte Sonata by John South Shedlock This Librevox recording is in the public domain. Two Contemporaries of Beethoven 1. Weber The two greatest contemporaries of Beethoven were, undoubtedly, Carl Maria von Weber and Franz Schubert, and both wrote Piano Forte Sonatas. Many other composers of that period, some of them possessed of considerable talent, devoted themselves to that branch of musical literature. Steibelt, 1764-1823 Wurfel, 1772-1812 J. B. Kramer, 1771-1858 J. N. Hummel, 1778-1837 F. W. M. Kalkbrenner, 1788-1849 Of these, the first three may be named sonatomakers. The number which they produced is positively alarming, but it is some consolidation to think that the knowledge of their works is not of essential importance. Steibelt's sonata in E flat, dedicated to Madame Bonaparte, was given one to the popular concerts in 1860, and Wurfel's Ne plus autres sonatas, several times between 1859 and 1873, not one, however, of the 105 said to have been written by J. B. Kramer, has ever been heard there. Footnote The finale of a sonata in A flat by Kramer, one of the three dedicated to Haydn, is said to have suggested to Beethoven the finale of his sonata in A flat, Opus 26. Dr. Eric Prager, who has recently published a facsimile of the autograph of Beethoven's sonata, in his preface quotes some passages from the Kramer finale, which certainly seemed to show that the Bonmaster was to some extent influenced by his predecessor. Here is the second of the three passages quoted. End of footnotes Most of these works justly merits the oblivion into which they have fallen. Some are quite second or even third rate, others were written merely as showpieces. Footnote Wurfel's Ne plus autres sonata would have long been forgotten, but for Dusek's plus autres, see chapter on predecessors of Beethoven. End of footnotes And are now, of course, utterly out of date, and many were written for educational purposes, or to suit popular taste. Sonatas containing variations on national and favourite heirs, like rondos, etc. Footnote In Steibelt's two sonatas, Opus 62, for instance, the heirs If a body meet a body, Jesse McFarlane and La Schrantius, transcribers note, so in original, probably should be Chartres, are introduced. In his Opus 40, we find the Calcedonian beauty, the maid of Selma, twas within a mile of Edinburgh town and life-letter's cherish. Wurfel's sonatas, Opus 35, 38, also contains scotch heirs, and his Ne plus autres has variations on life-letter's cherish. End of footnotes Karma's studies have achieved worldwide reputation, and as music, they are often interesting. Also in his sonatas are to be found many serious well-written movements. Musical taste has, however, so changed since the rise of the Romantic school that it is doubtful whether they would be now acceptable even as teaching pieces. Hummel's few sonatas have suffered at the hand of time, but though the music be mechanical and therefore cold, there is much to interest pianists in the two sonatas in F sharp minor, Opus 81, and D major, Opus 106. These were written after the composer's appointment at Weimar in 1820. His two early sonatas, Opus 13 in Eb and Opus 20 dedicated to Haydn are not easy, yet not so difficult as the two just mentioned. Steibelt and Wurfel both measured themselves with Beethoven in the art of improvisation. The former was so ignominiously defeated that he never ventured to meet his rival again. Wurfel, however, fared better, with his long fingers he could accomplish wonders on the instrument, but only so far as technique was concerned did he surpass Beethoven. Carl Maria von Weber, 1786-1826, in early youth, studied the piano forte under two able court organists. J. P. Huschkel, footnote, 1773-1853, Count Organist at Helberghausen, end of footnote, and J. N. Kalker, footnote, 1766-1826, court organist at Friesing, end of footnote, both of whom he always held in grateful remembrance. Under the direction of the latter, he wrote some piano forte sonatas, which, according to the statement of his son and biographer M. M. von Weber, were accidentally destroyed. Later on, he studied under Fugler and other masters. He became a famous pianist and, at Berlin in 1812, composed his first sonata in C, Opus 24. Number two in A-flat, Opus 39, was commenced at Prague in 1814 and completed at Berlin in 1816. Number three in D-minor, Opus 49, was also written at Berlin and in the same year. Number four in E-minor, Opus 70, occupied the composer between the years 1819 and 1822. It was written at Halterwitz near Dresden. During the time he was at work on his opera, Oi Riantha. Weber and Schubert are both classed as contemporaries of Beethoven, yet the latter was also their predecessor. Of Schubert, we shall speak presently. As regards Weber, it should be remembered that before he had written his sonata in C, Opus 24, Beethoven had already published Les Adieux, Opus 81A. The individuality of the composer of Dichre Schutz was, however, so strong that we meet with no direct traces of the influence of Beethoven in his pianoforte music. The Weber sonatas have been described by Mr. P. Spitter as Fantasias in sonata form, and this admirably expresses the character of these works. Weber followed the custom of his day in writing sonatas, but it seems as though he would have accomplished still greater things had he given full reign to his imagination and allowed subject matter to determine form. Like his great contemporaries of whom we have next to speak, Weber, in spite of Fogler's teaching, was not a strong contrapuntist. He relied chiefly upon melody, harmonic effects, and strong contrasts. His romantic themes, his picturesque colouring, enchanted the ear, and the poetry and passion of his pianoforte music, both intensified by grand technique, stir one soul to its very depths. Yet the works are of the Fantasia rather than of the sonata order. We have the letter rather than the true spirit of a sonata. Place side by side Weber's sonata in A flat, the greatest of the four, with Beethoven's D minor or a passionata, and the difference will be at once felt. In the latter there is a latent power which is wanting in the former. It seems as if one could never sound the depths of Beethoven's music. Fresh study reveals new beauties, new details, the relation of the parts to the whole, not only of the sections of a movement, but of the movements in to see. And, therefore, the unity of the whole becomes more evident. We must not be understood to mean that Weber worked without plan, or even careful thought, but merely that the organic structure of his sonatas is far less closely knit than in those of the Bonn master. There is contrast rather than concatenation of ideas, outward show rather than inner substance. The slow movements, with exception of those of the first and second sonatas, which have somewhat of a dramatic character, and finales are satisfactory per se as music. The former have charm, refinement. The latter, elegance, pecancy, brilliancy. Now, in these sonatas the opening movements seem like the commencements of some tragedy. In number two there is nobility mixed with pathos. In number three fierce passion, and in number four still passion, albeit of a tenderer, more melancholy kind. But in the finales it is though we had passed from the tragedy of the stage to the melodrama, or frivolity of the drawing room. They offer, it is true, strong contrast, yet not of the right sort, not that to which Beethoven has accustomed us. Throughout the four sonatas we detect the hand of a great pianist. In the first the element of virtuosity predominates. The first, and especially the last movement, the so-called perpetuum mobily, are showpieces, though of a high order. In the other sonatas the same element exists, yet it seldom obtrudes itself. The composer is merely using to the full the rich means at his commands to express his luxuriant and poetical thoughts. In his writing for the instrument Weber recalls Dusek, the Dusek of the Retro à Paris and invocation sonatas. The earlier master was also a great pianist and filled with the spirit of romance. Still he lacked the force and fire of Weber. Then again Dusek, in early manhood, passed through the classical crucible, whereas Weber was born and bred very much à la boutie mienne. He developed from within rather from without. It is easier to criticise than to create. If we cannot place the sonatas of Weber on the same high level as those of Beethoven, we may at least say that they take very high rank. Also that in the hands of a great pianist they are certain to produce powerful impression. Two. Schubert. The other great contemporary of Beethoven was Franz Schubert, born in 1797. The year in which the former published his sonata in E-flat, Opus 7. Then again Schubert's earliest piano forte sonata was composed in February 1815, while Beethoven's sonata in A, Opus 101, was produced at the concert only one year later, 16th of February 1816. It is well to remember these dates by which we perceive that Beethoven had written 27 of his 32 sonatas before Schubert commenced composing works of this kind. But though here and there the influence of the born master may be felt in Schubert, the individuality of the latter was so strong that we regard him as an independent contemporary. The influence of Haydn and Mozart plus his own mighty genius seems almost sufficient to account for Schubert's music. The new edition of the composer's works published by Messers Breitkopf and Hartel contains 15 sonatas for piano forte solo, the first four, number one in E, 1815, number two in C, 1815, number three in A-flat, 1817, and number four in E-minor, 1817, and hitherto only been known by name. In following the career of a great composer, his first efforts, however humble, however incomplete, are of interest. But from a purely musical point of view, the minuets of two and three are the most attractive portions of these sonatas. We catch them in glimpses of that freshness and romantic beauty which characterised Schubert's later productions. In moments of strong inspiration, Schubert worked wonders, yet the lack of regular and severe study often makes itself felt. Though colouring may enhance counterpoint, it will not serve as a substitute for it. Then there is at times monotony of rhythm, and this to a great extent is the result of little practice in the art of combining melodies. While on the subject of Schubert's failings, we may as well complete the catalogue. In the later sonatas we meet with defuseness, and sometimes a stroke of genius is followed by music which, at any rate for Schubert, is commonplace. It seems presumption to weigh the composer in critical balances and to find him wanting, but he stands here side by side with Beethoven, and contrast between the two men forces itself on our notice. Both were richly endowed by nature. By training and the power of self-criticism which the latter brings with it, Beethoven was able to make the most of his gifts. Schubert, on the other hand, by the very lavish display which he sometimes made, actually weakened them. There is no page of musical history more touching than the one which records how the composer, after having written wonderful songs, from numerous dimension, made arrangements to study with S. Sektor, one of the most eminent theorists of the day. The composer paid the latter a visit on the 4th of November, 1828, but within a fortnight, Schubert was no longer in the land of the living. When too late, he seems to have made the discovery which perhaps his very wealth of inspiration had hidden from him up to that moment, namely that discipline strengthens genius. One may point out faults in Schubert's artworks, yet his melodies and harmonies are so bewitching, his music altogether so full of spontaneity and inspiration, that for the time being, one is spellbound. Schumann was fairly right when he described Schubert's lengths as heaven lay. Three more sonatas were produced in 1817, the first in the unusual key of B major, and here we find a marked advance in conception and execution. It opens within Allegro, the total effect of which, however, is not satisfactory. The principal theme has dramatic power and what follows as lyrical charm, but the development section is disappointing. The Adagio seems like an arrangement of a lovely symphonic movement. The orchestra and not the piano forte must have been the composer's mind when he penned it. The lively Scherzo, with its quiet trio, is a little gem. The clear-cut, concise form of such movements saved Schubert from all danger of diffuseness, and in them, as Mozart remarked to the Emperor Joseph, who complained of the number of notes in his opera Die Entferung, there are just as many as are necessary. The sonata in A minor, opus 164, which consists of three movements is short and delightful from beginning to end. In the opening Allegro, the second subject occurs by way of exception in the major key of the sub-mediant. There is much to admire in the third in E flat, especially the minuet and trio, yet the music is not pure Schubert. About six years elapsed between this and the next sonata in A minor, 1823. Schubert had already written his B minor symphony, and though the first two movements of the sonata will not compare with those of the former in loftiness of conception, there is a certain kinship between the two works. In both, there are fitful gusts of passion, a feeling of awe, and a tone of sadness which tells of disappointed hopes of lost illusions. The finale, though fine, stands on a lower level. During the years 1825 to 26, Schubert wrote, besides one in A major, opus 120, three magnificent sonatas, one in A minor, dedicated to the archduke Rudolf, opus 42, another in D, opus 53, and a third in G, opus 78. In these three works, we have the composer's ripest efforts. The first movement of the first in A minor is well nigh perfect, that opening phrase haunts one like a sad dream, and the development section, long though not monotonous, is full of it. Without sacrificing its individuality, Schubert has here caught something of Beethoven's peculiar method of treating a theme, that is, of evolving new phrases from its various sections. The coder, again, has penetrating power, and the fierce concluding phrase sounds like the passionate resistance of a proud artist to the stern degrees of fate. The tender melody and delicate variations of the andante, the bold scherzo with its soft trio, and the energetic finale are all exceedingly interesting, yet they do not affect us like the first movement, in which lies not only the majesty, but the mystery of genius. The sonata in D has a vigorous opening allegro, a long, lovely slow movement, a crisp scherzo, but a peculiar finale, one which Schumann qualifies as comical, posielic. The sonata in G contains some of the composer's most charming, characteristic music. The opening, Moderato e Cantabile, is a tone poem of touching pathos. The sad principal theme is supported by such soft, tender harmonies that its very sadness charms. In the development section, it assumes a different character. Melancholy gives place to passion, a time's fierce, then calm returns. The coder is one of the most fascinating ever penned by Schubert. The slow movement in Minuetto form worthy companions, but with the finale, the composer breaks the spell. Schumann says, keep away from it. It has no imagination, no enigma to solve. The last three sonatas in C minor, A and B flat were composed in September 1828, not three months before the death of the composer. In the opening theme of number two, determination and confidence are expressed, while in the scherzo and rondo there is even sunshine, though now and again black clouds flit across the scene. But in the Adagio and in all the movements of the other two sonatas, the mood is either one of sadness, more or less intense, dark despair, or fierce frenzy. Music can express both joy and sorrow, though the latter seems more congenial to it. Mournful strains are an echo, as it were, of the still sad music of humanity. Grief two sharpens the imagination, and music produced under its influence stirs a sensitive soul more powerfully than the brightest merriest sounds. But these three sonatas, though they contain wonderful thoughts and some of Schubert's grandest and most delicate harmonic colouring fall short of perfection. They are too long, not because they cover so many pages, but because there is a lack of balance. At times, indeed, the composer seems to lose all sense of proportion. Then, again, the weakness of Schubert in the art of development is specially felt. The noble themes on the whole lose rather than gain by the loose monotonous and, in some places, even trivial treatment to which they are subjected. And what is more fateful than a lack of gradation of interest? In a truly great work of art, be it poem, tragedy, sonata, or symphony, the author carries his readers or audience along with him from one point to another. He gives no time for rest or reflection, and when he has worked them up to the highest pitch, he stops, and there is an awakening, as it were, from some wonderful dream. If afterwards the work be analysed, the pains with which it was built up can be traced, the powerful effect which it produced will be found due, not alone to the creative power, the imagination of the author, but also to his dialectic skill and to his critical faculty. It is all very well to talk of great works as the fruits of hot inspiration and not of cold intellect. A masterpiece is the outcome of both. The one provides the material, the other shapes it. Schubert was an inspired composer, but most of his works, especially those of large compass, show that he was mastered by moods, not that he was a master of them. It may be said that many who can appreciate beautiful music have not the bump of intellect strongly developed, and would not therefore be affected by any such shortcomings in music. That is very likely, but here we are analysing and comparing and neither the beauty nor even grandeur of the music, nor the effect which it might produce on certain minds concerns us. There are many persons who have had no technical training but who possess a true sense of order, proportion and gradation and such instinctively feel that Schubert's sonatas, in spite of their many striking qualities, we have referred more than once to the popular concert catalogue which is a very fair thermometer of public taste. One can see how seldom the Schubert sonatas are performed in comparison with those of his great contemporary, but to refer especially to the last three sonatas now under notice. The one in B-flat, number three, was played by Mr. Leonard Borwick, it is true, on the 3rd of February 1894, but the previous data performance on the 16th of January 1882, number two in A was last given in 1882 and number one has not been heard since 1879. The Allegro of the C-minor sonata opens with a bold theme and an energetic transition passage leads to the dominant of the relative major key. Of the soft second theme Schubert seems so fond that he is loath to quit it. He repeats it in varied form and still after that it is heard in minor. This unnecessarily lengthens the exposition section which in addition has the repeat mark. The development section is rather vague but the coda is impressive. The long descending phrase and the sad repeated minor chords at the close suggest exhaustion after a fierce conflict. The theme of the Adagio in A-flat, partly inspired by Beethoven is noble and full tender regretful feeling. The opening and close of the movement are the finest portions. The minuet and trio are effective but the final Allegro is hopelessly long and by no means equal to the rest of the work. The first movement of the sonata in A has a characteristic principal theme and one in the dominant key of bewitching beauty. The coda gives a last reminiscent of the opening theme but it's almost defiant character has vanished away for it is now played Pienissimo. Schubert in the importance of his coders recalls Beethoven. Each however made it serve a different purpose. The latter at any rate in his Allegro movement gathers together his strength as if for one last supreme effort. Schubert on the other hand seems rather as if his strength was spent and as if he could only give a faint echo of his leading theme. The coda of the first movement of the sonata in A minor, Opus 42 offers however one striking exception. The addantino and scherzo of the A sonata are well nigh perfect but the rondo in spite of much that is charming is of inferior quality and of irritating length. The third sonata in B flat the last of the series the sonatestimon of Beethoven's Opus 111 has wonderful movements yet it also contains lengths which even Schumann would have scarcely ventured to style heavenly. We refer particularly to the first and last movement the addante and scherzo are beyond criticism. These sonatas were written as Schubert was about to enter the valley of the shadow of death. His spirit was still strong but his flesh must have been weak. In the account of any imperfections would it be to lose some of Schubert's loftiest thoughts, some of his choices tone painting. End of chapter 8 Recording by Jordan Watts Oxfordshire Chapter 9 of the piano forte sonata by John South Shedlock. The sleep of ox recording is in the public domain. Schumann, Chopin Prams and Liszt After Beethoven the first composer of note was Robert Schumann, one of the founders of the so-called Romantic Schole. In one of his letters he refers to Beethoven's choral symphony as the turning point from the classical to the Romantic period. By reading Schumann had cultivated his imagination but his musical training was irregular and indeed when he first commenced composing practically nil. If his soul was stirred by some poem or tale or by remembrance of some dear friend he sought to express his thoughts and feelings and on the spur of the moment. In a letter he writes I have been all the week at the piano composing writing, laughing and crying all at once. You will find this state of things nicely described in my Opus 20, the Crosso Umeresca which is already at the printers. You see how quickly I always work now I get an idea, write it down and have it printed that's what I like. 12 sheets composed in a week and thus short-tone poems or a long piece such as the Humeresca of irregular form were the result. Now that was not the way in which he composed his two sonatas. He was two years off and on at work on the first in F-sharp Minor Opus 11 and eight on the other in G Minor Opus 22. One may therefore conclude that the forms of form were a source of trouble to him and he can scarcely have felt very enthusiastic over his task. In 1839 after both sonatas were completed he declared that although from time to time fine specimens of the sonata species made their appearance and probably would continue to do so it seemed as if that form of composition had run its appointed course. Of these two sonatas the one in F-sharp Minor is the more interesting the aria is a movement of exquisite simplicity and tenderness and the shurzo with its intermezzo alabola has life and character but the Allegro which follows the poetic introduction and the finale Apache and at times laboured it must not however be supposed that they are uninteresting the music has poetry and passion and the strong passages atone for the weak ones. There were composers at that time who could have the sonatas more correct in form and more logical in treatment yet not one who could have written music so filled with the spirit of bromance. The sonata in G Minor resembles its predecessor both in its strong and its weak points. Considered however as a whole it is less warm less intense it is unnecessary to describe the two works in detail for they must be familiar to all musicians and especially pianists a sympathetic rendering of them will always give pleasure but in a history of evolution they are of comparatively small moments it is interesting to compare them with the Fantasia in C Opus 17 a work in which Schumann displayed the full power of his genius Chopin was another composer whose spirit moved uneasily within the limits of the sonata the first which he wrote we do not reckon the posthumous one in C Minor the one in B flat minor is an impressive work there is a certain rugged power in the opening movement and the shirt so is passionate and its trio tender the picturesque march owes much of its effect to its colouring and contrasts while the extraordinary finale sounds weird and uncanny in the hands of a great interpreter the music makes a powerful appeal yet as a sonata it is not really great it lacks organic development unity the sonata in B Minor though attractive to pianists is an inferior work the first movement with exception of its melodious second theme is dry and the finale belongs to the bravura order of peace the shirt so is light and graceful the slow movement is the most poetical of the four though spun out at too great length the real Chopin is to be found in his nocturnes, mesurcas and ballads not in his sonatas among modern sonatas the three by Brahms C Opus 1 F sharp minor Opus 2 and F minor Opus 5 claim special notice with the exception of the list sonata in B Minor which whatever its musical value at least opens up new paths in the matter of form the Brahms sonatas are the only ones since Schumann which distinctly demand detailed notice the composer followed ordinary Beethoven lines with exception of the intermezzo of the third sonata the number and order of movement resemble those of many a Beethoven sonata while there is enlargement not change in the matter of form Brahms studied the special means by which his great predecessor in some instances sought to accentuate the unity between various sections of a sonata he steeped his soul in the music of Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin and Schumann and in addition trained his intellect to grasp the mysteries of counterpoint and to perceive the freer modern uses to which it was put by the classical masters Brahms's early acquaintance list opened up to him to the resources of modern technique and thus possessing individuality of his own in addition to these inheritances and requirements Brahms wrote sonatas which though in the main on old lines are no mere imitations pale reflexes of his predecessors the first sonata in C, Opus 1 has for its opening theme one which has been said to resemble the opening theme of Beethoven's Opus 106 it will be well to look on this picture Beethoven and on this Brahms there is resemblance in the matter with them but the up beat in Beethoven constitutes a marked difference and besides the succession of notes differs in each case Brahms theme already at the eighth bar recommences in a key a tone lower a similar proceeding by the way is to be found in Beethoven's sonata in G, Opus 31 number one after a few points of imitation and digression through various keys we meet with a new theme in A minor the soft tender character which contrasts well with the bold opening one but unity amid diversity is Brahms' aim and here the contrast does not prevent a certain kinship between them one however which can be felt rather than explained footnote notice in each case the falling interval in the second and fourth bar end of footnote of another pianissimo phrase still in A minor much use is afterwards made given in the exposition section to the subject matter styled secondary and still more so in the development section is peculiar this feature had certainly not been copied from Beethoven who as a rule made his first theme of first importance Brahms concludes his exposition section in the opening key of the movement returned to early methods Beethoven adopted a similar cause in the first movement of his Opus 53 Brahms' development section is comparatively short of counterpoint we get a good illustration in the combinations of both first and second themes of colour in the presentation of the mournful minor theme in the major key and of originality in the bars leading to the recapitulation in this last instance the idea of gradually drawing closer together the members of a phrase was borrowed from Beethoven as the manner in which it is carried out in the earlier master it often stands out as a special feature here we have besides counter rhythm and ambiguous modulation when the principal theme returns it is clothed first with subdominant then with tonic minor harmony the movement concludes with a vigorous coda evolved from the opening theme five bars from the end the first two bars of that theme in the original form and then as if repetition were not sufficient a thematic cadence is added in which the notes are given in loud tones in augmented form and in addition with slackened tempo l'argamente the slow movement addante was, we believe one of Brahms' earliest efforts at composition it is said to have been written by him at the age of 14 it consists of a theme with variations and the former is based on an old German minor lead the words of the folk song are written beneath the notes as if to put the listener into the right mood we need not dwell on the variations in which Beethoven and Schubert are the prevailing influences though not to any alarming extent the music is by no means difficult for Brahms indeed remarkably easy the movement opens in C minor but closes in C major a shurzo follows E minor 6 eighth time Allegro molto e confurco it has a trio in C major the shurzo with its varied rhythm is full of life the trio interesting in harmony and also in the matter of rhythm the finale another Allegro confurco the young composer has mounted his fiery pegasus opens in C in 9 eighth time thus a metamorphosis in fact of the opening theme of the sonata and later on we have a similar representation of subject matter from the first movement this finale is musically and technically attractive yet scarcely on the same high level as the first movement but the age of the composer must be taken into consideration for quite a young man it is a wonderful production the second sonata opus 2 is in F sharp minor the Allegro non tropoma is a movement which in its subject material breathes the spirit of Chopin the weird stormy opening in the principal key may claim kinship with the opening of the Polish composer's polonaise in the same key while a certain strain in the melodious second subject brings to one's mind a Chopin nocturne also in F sharp minor in neither case however is there anything amounting to plagiarism the exposition section is not repeated the development is clever though perhaps somewhat formal again here the secondary theme occupies apparently cheap attention but it is supported by a base evolved from a principal motive and in transition passages of the exposition and also in the recapitulation section and coda in one or other shape makes itself heard so that though outwardly subordinate its function is important it binds together various portions of the movement and thus promotes union the endante which follows consists as in the first sonata of a theme with variations there is nothing novel either in the theme or its mode of treatment certain chords, cadences figures suggest Schubert an idol whom Brahms has never ceased to worship and in one place the three staves and a few passages show the influence of Liszt the pianist par excellence of the days in which the sonata was written but the movement has in addition to romantic charm, individuality it commences in B minor then after a short expressive passage in major an arpeggio chord leads directly to the scherzo the following shows the outward connection between the two movements commencement of endante theme scherzo this bright clever scherzo with its soft Schubertian trio need not detain us the final allegro is preceded by a short introduction in which the chief theme and other material of the finale are set forth the connection between this earlier movements of the sonata is not evident like the one for instance already noticed between the endante and the scherzo with research and possibly some imagination relationship might however be traced we are far from asserting that movements of a sonata ought to be visibly connected after all the true bond of union must be a spiritual one but if an attempt be made in that direction surely the opening and closing movements are those which by preference should be selected in his opus 28 Beethoven seems to have evolved the theme of all four movements from the first in opus 106 and opus 109 connection is clear between the first and last movements such an experiment was safe in the hands of Beethoven and Brahms has never allowed it to become a mannerism but second rate composers and superficial listeners run the danger of mistaking the shadow for substance to this matter we shall however soon return many references have been made to the composers who have influenced Brahms yet we cannot resist naming one more the opening section of this Allegro finale reminds one more than once of the corresponding section in Clementi's fine sonata in B minor the music of this concluding movement is clever the third sonata opus 5 is in F minor a wild sinister theme and one which even casts a shadow over the calm hope-inspiring strains afterwards heard in the orthodox key of the relative major the tender melodies and soft chromatic colouring which fill the remainder of the exposition section show strong feeling for contrast again storm and stress alternate with comparative calm in the development section the andante expressivo bears the following description and it offers a delightful tone picture the moon or heavens clear as your spreading her sacred light the calm of evening and happy though ever sighing lovers it is a scene to tempt poet, painter and musician seems to have great advantage music by imitation and association can describe scenes of nature and can paint for are not it's harmonies colours but the musician can do what is possible to neither poet nor painter he can make a direct appeal to the emotions in their own language the soft dreamy coda which with it's andante it's adagio and widened out closing cadence seems to indicate the unwillingness of the lovers to part has shoe but colouring and charm the reminiscence at the commencement of this movement of the middle movement of the patetique cannot fail to attract attention then again the opening of the shirt so footnote the long arpeggio leading up to the first note is omitted end of footnote sounds familiar it must surely have been this movement in which someone pointed out to the composer a reminiscence of Mendelssohn no one can find that out was the rough and ready reply of Brahms but if Mendelssohn be the prevailing influence in the shirt so shoe but has his turn in the trio the fourth movement is an intermezzo entitled rookblick retrospect the opening phrase and indeed the whole of the short movement carries us back to the picture of the lovers some change has taken place have the lovers grown cold or has death divided them now sad and clothed in minor harmonies the finale perhaps shows skill rather than inspiration with regards to some of its subject matter it is, like the previous movement also retrospective Liszt's sonata in B minor dedicated to Robert Schumann was evidently written under the special influence of Beethoven's later sonatas perhaps more particularly the one in A flat in verse 110 there is by no means unanimity of opinion among musicians with regard to Liszt's merit as a composer some consider that his genius has not yet been properly recognised others that he will not for a moment bear comparison with any one of the great masters who preceded him and who wrote for the piano forte among his works which have specially given rise to discussion stands this B minor sonata which has proved a stumbling block both on account of its form and its contents it would simplify matters if the one could be discussed without the other this however is not possible we have hitherto considered the sonata of three movements as typical and from that type Liszt's work differs yet not so widely as on a first hearing or reading may appear thus wrote Mr C. A. Barry in a remarkably interesting analysis of the sonata which he prepared some years back for Mr Oscar Beringer he remarks further all the leading characteristics of a sonata in three movements are here fully maintained within the scope of a single movement or to speak more precisely an uninterrupted succession of several changes of tempo thus constituting a more complete organism than can be attained by three distinct and independent movements the idea of passing from one movement to another without break dates from Emanuel Bach, Ney, earlier from Kuno and Beethoven occasionally adopted it and with striking effect the wretched habit at concerts of applauding between the movements of a sonata establishes a break where at any rate in certain sonatas of Beethoven the composer certainly imagined an uninterrupted succession the second movement of the appassionata breaks off with an audio chord of diminished seventh and the finale starts on the same chord yet surely after the final tonic chord of the opening Allegro there should be no break but only a brief pause a fermata in the middle of the movement does not constitute a pause neither needed at the end in Beethoven's sonatas we find many movements outwardly independent yet inwardly connected those of the D minor and F minor may be named by way of illustration the composer however in one or two of his works revived to a certain extent the plan adopted in the suites of early times of evolving various movements from one theme such outward connection may help to strengthen a bond of union already existing but it will not establish it the question then of lists more complete organism depends after all on the contents of the music so too when in the addition to uninterrupted succession makes the one theme of the slow introduction the source whence he derives the principal part of his tone picture everything depends on the quality and latent power of this fertilising germ discussion of form per se is an impossibility this list sonata stands however as a bold attempt to modify a form which as we have seen Schumann thought exhausted for that reason that lists dedicated the work to him and one in which so many soulless compositions were written during the second quarter of the present century la sonata says Charles Soulier in his Nouveau Dictionnaire de musique illustrée émorte avec le 18e siècle qui en est introduit is lists sonata a phoenix rising from its ashes shall we be able to say la sonata émorte vive la sonata time will tell here the two lists work has not borne fruit end of chapter 9 recording by Jordan Watts Oxfordshire chapter 10 of the piano forte sonata by John South Shadlock the sleep of ox recordings in the public domain the sonata in England in previous chapters we have been occupied with Italy and Germany without reference to those countries a history of the piano forte sonata would be impossible Italy was the land of its birth Germany that of its growth and apparently highest development during the 16th and 17th centuries England furnished notable composers for the harpsichord William Byrd and Dr John Bull are not only among the earliest but at the time in which they flourished they were the greatest who wrote for a keyboard instrument in the beginning of the 17th century English music was indeed in a prosperous state it was admired at home and its merits were acknowledged abroad H. Peacham in his Complete Gentleman published in the reign of James I says of Byrd for motets and music of piety devotion as well as for the honour of our nation as the merit of the man I prefer above all others our phoenix Mr William Byrd whom in that kind I know not whether any may equal I am sure none excel even by the judgment of France and Italy who are very sparing in their commendation of strangers in regard of that conceit they hold of themselves his Cantione's sucre also his gradualia are mere angelical and divine and being of himself naturally disposed to gravity and piety his vein is not so much for light madrigals or canzanettes yet his virginella and some others in his first set cannot be mended by the first Italian of the mall then at the end of the 17th century came Purcell a genius who seemed likely to raise English music still higher in the estimation of foreign musicians but alas he departed ere his powers were matured by his death English art sustained a grievous loss and from that time declined the history of instrumental music during the 18th century is dull and so far as the pianoforte sonata is concerned of little or no importance nevertheless a brief survey of that century will be attempted after which reference will be made to a few sonata composers of the century now drawing to a close just as we referred to the sonatas for strings and hops accord before commencing the history of the clavier sonata proper so here a few remarks will be made concerning the sonata before Dr. T. A. R. the first composer so far as we can trace who wrote a work of that kind for the harpsichord alone in 1683 appeared Purcell's 12 sonatas for two violins and a bass the very same year in which Corelli published his 12 sonatas Opus 1 in his preface Purcell frankly admits that he has faithfully endeavoured a just imitation of the most famed Italian masters Sir J. Hawkins supposes that the sonatas of Bassani in the British Museum copy of the Dudici sonata di Ciesa opera Quinta of Bassani are bound up with sonata atrei by Giacomo Sherard in plain English the latter composer was a certain James Sherard an apothecary by profession the Bassani sonatas here mentioned were published at Amsterdam Hawkins tells us that an ordinary judge not knowing that they were the work of another might mistake them for compositions of Corelli the first violin book as the following entry Mr. Sherard was an apothecary in Crutched Friars about the year 1735 performed well on the violin was very intimate with Handel and other masters this copy which possibly belonged to Sherard contains also the following written apparently by the person into whose hands the book passed William Salter surgeon and apothecary Whitechapel High Street the various sonatas too are marked in pencil some are good others very good the date 1789 is also given the year probably in which the volumes became the property of W. Salter the end of footnotes and perhaps of some other of the Italians were the models after which he formed though in our introductory chapter we mentioned the sonatas a due tre quattro e cinque strumenti by Vitale 1677 and of these Mr. J. A. Fuller Maitland in his preface to the Purcell Society edition of the twelve sonatas of 1683 remarks that it is difficult to resist the conclusion that these were the Englishman's models Vitale undoubtedly exerted strong influence yet Purcell himself describes his book of sonatas as a just imitation of the most famed Italian masters these sonatas of 1683 also the ten which appeared after his death among which is to be found number nine called the Golden Sonata in 1697 are of great importance and interest in the history of English music but there is no new departure in them this at any rate in the earlier ones of 1683 is fully acknowledged by the composer in 1695 John Ravenscroft a descendant possibly of Thomas Ravenscroft published at Rome sonatas for Villeline e Villeline or Achiluto Colbasso per Lugano opera prima but these were mere imitations of Corelli footnote these sonatas were afterwards published at Amsterdam as Corellis being marked as his opera setima on the title page was written in 1728 a certain John Humphreys published by a subscription 12 sonatas for two violins and a bass and Hawkins in his history excites curiosity by declaring that they are of a very original cast he adds however in respect to that they are in a style somewhat above that of the common popular heirs and country dance tunes the delight of the vulgar and great beneath what might be expected from the studies of a person not at all acquainted with the graces and elegancies of the Italians in their composition for instruments to this it must be attributed that the sonatas of Humphreys were the common practice of such small proficient in harmony as in his time we used to recreate themselves with music at alehouse clubs and places of vulgar resort in the villages adjacent to London of these there were formally many in which sixpence at most was the price of admission we have quoted this passage at length because it indirectly confirms our statement concerning English music of this period if Hawkins had had anything better to talk about he would not have wasted space on the music of alehouses and places of vulgar resort it may however be asked whether Hawkins report of Humphreys music is trustworthy now although the sonatas offer nothing of special interest we may suddenly venture to say that one does not hear such well written strains in or near alehouses of the present day the sonatas consist for the most part of four short movements first a slow introduction then an Allegro somewhat in the Carelli style and a Daggio often very short separates this from the final movement and Allegro in binary form a minuet or a gig this Humphreys musical landscape is the only one we have to offer our readers between Purcell and Dr. Arne but before proceeding to notice the sonatas of the latter, let us say something if not of English music yet of music in England during the first half of the 18th century of the influence of Carelli we have already made mention that influence was materially strengthened by the two celebrated violinist composers Veracini and Jim Iniani who came to London in 1714 the former only paid a short visit the latter made England his home then a greater composer than the two just mentioned had already arrived in London this was Handel whose Rinaldo had been produced with wonderful success on the 24th of February 1710 the genius of Handel triumphed over all rivals whether English or foreign for Welnai half a century and this fact alone explains the decline of English arts but there was another strong influence which specially affected harpsichord music the lessons of Domenico Scolatti had made their way through Europe Thomas Rosengrave who went to Italy in 1710 became acquainted with the composer and on his return pleaded the cause of the Italian with an enthusiasm similar to that displayed a century later by Samuel Wesley for Scolatti's great contemporary J.S. Bach Rosengrave edited 42 suites of lessons for the harpsichords by Scolatti still another Italian influence may be mentioned on the day, says Bernie in his history of music when Handel's coronation anthem was rehearsed at Westminster Abbey 1727 San Martini's footnote C chapter on Haydn end of footnote 12 sonatas were advertised but Handel and Scolatti make up the history of harpsichord music in the first half of the 18th century Bernie expressly states that the lessons of one and the suites of the other were the only good music for keyed instruments Thomas Augustin Arne 1710-78 is principally known as a writer of operas and incidental music to plays but he also wrote organ concertos and sonatas for the harpsichord the latter entitled sonatas or lessons for the harpsichords probably appeared somewhere about 1750 with this double title it is of course impossible to regard them as serious sonatas number eight for instance consists merely of a minuet with variations number one opens with an andante in binary form while two bars of adagio leads to another allegro of similar structure number two is of a similar kind the binary form is of the latter type i.e. there is a return to the principal theme in the second section number three opens with a preludes and a note states that in this and other preludes which are meant as extemporary touches before the lesson begins neither the composer nor performer are obliged to a strictness of tune the pleasing allegro which follows shows the influence of scolati handle the sonata concludes with an attractive minuet and variations number five with its graceful giveotta and number seven might be performed occasionally on sonatas if not great contain some neat melodious writing the second half of the century still offers poor results so far as national music is concerned we have spoken of handle and scolati but after their music in england again fail under foreign rule in the very year of handle's death john christian buck arrived in london which he made his home until his death in 1782 during that period the sonatas and mozart and heiden became known and the two visits of the latter to england in 1791 to 92 and 1794 to 95 gave greater lustre to his name and rendered his style still more popular and all this foreign influence strong in as much as heiden and mozart belonged to a school with which jc bark was in sympathy is reflected in the english music of the period john burton published in 1766 ten sonatas for the harpsichord which are of interest some of the writing recalls scolati but there are also many touches of harmony and melody which tell of later times the introduction of the alberti base is one clear sign of a post scolati period burton paid a visit to germany in 1752 and was we presume acquainted with immanuel bark's compositions we may also name six sonatas by i wargan mb published in 1769 at the head of number five the composer remarks less the consecutive fifths at the beginning of the theme of this movement should escape the critic the author here apprises him of them they are as follows the critic of those days must have been very dull if he required such assistance and his ear very sensitive if offended by such consecutive as these lastly we may give the name of a lady mb footnote she was surely the daughter of son of a frenchman and of an irish man who was on intimate terms with hyden to whom the sonata above mentioned is dedicated end of footnote interesting sonata in g opus three was dedicated to hyden in the early part of the nineteenth century john field whose nocturnes are still played and admired wrote three sonatas opus one and dedicated them to museo clementi his teacher number one is in e flat number two in a and number three in c minor they all consist of only two movements number one allegro and rondo number two allegro and allegro vivace number three allegro and allegretto in the first two sonatas the two movements are in the same key in the last the first movement is in c minor the second in c major the rondo of number one contains foreshadowings of Chopin fields music generally is old fashioned and not worth revival none indeed of his sonatas have ever been played at the modern day popular concerts samuel wesley footnote samuel wesley 1766 to 1837 nephew of the reverend john wesley was a gifted musician and is specially remembered for his enthusiastic admiration of john sebastian back the letters which he wrote to benjamin jacob on the subject of his favorite author were published by his daughter in 1875 he also in conjunction with cf horn published an edition of box voltemperiata clavier end of footnote wrote three sonatas opus three likewise eight dedicated to the honorable danes barrington yet we fear that not one of them would prove acceptable at the present day one looks in vain for the name of wesley in the popular concert catalog cipriani potter 1792 to 1871 deserves a word of mention bait oven writing to reese in london in 1818 says potter has visited me several times he seems to be a good man and has talent for composition his sonata in c opus one dedicated to mrs brimer belcher consists of three movements an allegro non-tropo with a hide niche theme an attractive adagio and a dainty and pleasing rondo pastoral the influence of bait oven and clementi is great the individuality of potter small but the sonata is thoroughly well written and at any rate an educational piece the rondo deserves reprinting sir g a mc farron composed three sonatas for the piano forte number three in g minor dedicated to miss agnes zimmerman is a work which presents several features of interest in the first long movement and allegro moderato there is no repeat the exposition section really contains three subjects an opening one in the principal key a second in d flat and a third in the orthodox key of the relative major the development section in which there is some solid counterpoint is decidedly clever much use is made in it of the second subject mentioned above the adante is a movement of similar structure a brief chat so in the making of which Weber and shuman seem to have lent a helping hand leads to a long finale the last but by no means the most successful of the four movements we have just spoken of influences in Weber may be said to have presided at the birth of the opening allegro and Mendelssohn at that of the finale the appearance in the finale of the d flat theme of the allegro deserves the sonata may not be an inspired work yet it has many excellent qualities of sir stern dale bennett's two sonatas the first in f minor opus 13 dedicated to Mendelssohn commences with a long movement moderato expressivo in which there are traces of the master to whom it is dedicated it is followed by a clever chateau and trio a melodious serenata and a weak presto agitato the first second and last movements are in f minor the third in f major shuman in a brief notice of the work describes it as excellent the sonata opus 46 entitled the made of all leans commences with an andante pastoral in a flat above which is written the following lines from act four seen one of Schiller's play the young frau van oléon short lost three big minor llama off the still in burgers huh in instance I led my sheep a down the mountain silent steep the movement is graceful and pleasing then follows an allegro matia le den feldra ho I can make take zoom a drink the Schlachter steig und the trumpet and Klingon prologues seen four the clanging trumpet sound the chargers rear and the loud war cry thunders in mine air then an in prison section with suitable superscription horror mick got in minor hoekst in north etc act five seen two hear me oh god in mine extremity the lastly a finale cuts is the schmetz und evik is dein freunde act five seen 14 brief is the sorrow endless is the joy the title and various superscriptions naturally cause the sonata to be ranked as program music but of a very simple kind it is easy to suggest pastoral scenes a few pedal notes a certain simplicity of melody and a few realistic touches expressive of the waving of branches of trees or the meandering of a brook and the thing is accomplished dr. h parry is an English composer whose name has of late been much before the public he has written works both secular and sacred for our important provincial festivals also chamber music songs etc and all his music shows mastery of form skill in the art of development and eclectic taste for the present we are however concerned merely with his sonatas like a Brahms he first composed piano sonatas number one in f number two in a minor and major Brahms made a third attempt but the two just mentioned are all that are known to us of dr. parry's number one opens with a non-tropo allegro a smooth movement of somewhat pastoral character the music also the writing of the instrument reminds one occasionally of steven heller a bright though formal shirt so with a well-contrasted trio in the key of the sub mediant is followed by a melodious and Dante and a graceful showy a legretto number two has an introductory movement marked mystoso it is divided into three sections the first opens with a phrase of dramatic character the second in the remote key of G sharp minor contains two short expressive shumanish themes treated in imitation the third has passages leading back to the key in phrase the allegro grazioso which follows is a compact little movement in form it is orthodox yet there is no repeats to the exposition section the influence of heller is still felt but also that of shuman grace rather than power distinguishes the adagio consentimento in the key of C sharp minor the shirt so is clever and effective and the allegretto cantabile though the last is scarcely the best of the four movements a manuscript sonata in D flat opus 20 by dr c v stanford another prominent composer of our day was produced at the popular concert for the February 1884 it consists of an adagio leading to an allegro moderato then follows an intermezzo in the key of the relative minor an adagio F major leads to the allegro finale in D flat major it is thus noticed in the musical times of March 1884 some listeners have professed to perceive in the work a deliberate intention to violate the established laws of form but we confess that to us no such design is apparent in matters of detail mr stanford shows himself an independent thinker but in all essentials his newest work is as classical in outline as could possibly be desired the opening adagio is exceedingly impressive and the succeeding allegro moderato is worked out with splendid mastery of the subject matter the general effect being that of a lofty design carried into execution by thoroughly experienced hand the succeeding allegro grazioso a modified kind of scherzo is vigorous and the final allegro comodo with its excellent first subject seems scarcely less important than the first movement end of chapter 10 recording by jordan watz oxford share chapter 11 of the piano forte sonata by john south shedlock this leap of ox recording is in the public domain modern sonatas duet sonatas sonatinas etc some mention however brief must be made of various sonatas written by other contemporaries of the four composers discussed in the last chapter after Beethoven the only work which from an evolution point of view really claims notice is won by list all other sonatas are written on classical lines with more or less modern coloring even on sioven son dendé one of the advanced french school of composers has written a petite sonata dans la forme classique mochales in germany and calc brena in france these were once names of note their music is often clever and brilliant but to modern tastes dry and old fashioned much of it too is superficial among still more modern works may be named those of steven heller raff rubenstein bargiel and greg the sonatas of heller are failures so far as the name sonata means anything he was not a composer du long allen and his opening and closing movements are dull and tedious some of the middle movements as for example the two middle ones of the sonata in c major are however charming bargiel sonata in c major opus 34 is written somewhat in heller style but it is stronger and consequently more interesting than any of that composers raff and rubenstein both wrote piano forte sonatas but these do not form prominent features in their work greg's one sonata in e minor opus 7 is a charming clever composition yet as it was with Chopin so it is with this composer his smallest works are his greatest of duet sonatas there is little more to do than to mention the principal ones in the evolution of the sonata they are of little or no moment some however are highly attractive it would be interesting to know who wrote the first sonata for hands but the point is not an easy one to settle yarn, speaking of Mozart's duets remarks that piano forte music for two performers was then far from having attained the popularity which it now possesses especially among amateurs we imagine that the sonata a quatre mains un clever son composé par G. C. Bach at Amsterdam chez G. Schnittmarsch on the music Dons le Varmus Strat was one of if not the earliest the part for the second clavier is printed under that of the first the sonata consists of only two movements an Allegro and a Rondo the general style and treatment of the two instruments reminds one of Mozart but the music is crude in comparison here is the commencement of the theme of the first movement the duet sonatas of Mozart are full of charm and skill and will ever be pleasing to young and old duet has written some delightful works and Hummel's opus 92 in A flat is certainly one of the best pieces of music he ever wrote Schubert's two sonatas B flat opus 30 C opus 140 are very different in character the one is smooth and agreeable the other contains some of the noblest music ever penned by the composer sonatinas are almost always written for educational purposes no description no analysis of such works is necessary only a list of the best the twelve sonatinas for the harpsichord or piano forte for the use of scholars opus 12 by James Hook 1746 to 1827 father of the well known humorist Theodore Hook deserve honorable mention each number contains only two short movements they are well written and though old not dry Joseph presumably another English composer 1786 to unknown also wrote 12 sonatinas for the piano forte those of Clementi and Ducec seem destined to perennial life the former composed 12 opus 36 37 and 38 the latter 6 opus 20 and then of course of higher musical interest are the sonatinas of Beethoven 2 and Hermann Goetz 2 from an educational point of view however these are perhaps not of equal value with many others of inferior quality but they are full of character and charm Kulao 1786 to 1832 on whose name Beethoven wrote the well known canon Kulniklao composed sonatas which owing to their fresh melodious character and skillful writing justly take high rank opus 20 55 59 60 and 88 have all been edited by Dr. H. Reiman among still more modern composers may be mentioned Reinecker whose 3 sonatinas opus 47 6 sonatinas with the right hand part within the compass of 5 fingers opus 127a and opus 136 the 6 miniature sonatas another term for sonatinas have given satisfaction to teachers and enjoyment to many young pupils also Cornelius Gurlitz who has proved a prolific worker in this department of musical literature his 6 sonatinas opus 121 and the duet sonatas opus 124 really sonatinas are exceedingly useful and justly popular besides these he has issued two series of progressive sonatinas some by Diabelli, Playel Stuybelt etc some from his own pen Curler's 3 sonatinas without octaves A. Leuchon's Instructive Sonatinas E. Powers National Sonatinas Ireland, Wales, Italy etc and Zavashar Venker's 2 sonatinas are likewise of value among various strange works written under the title of sonata we may count certain program pieces thus John Christian Bach or Mr Bach as he is named on the title page published a sonata which represents the battle of Rossbac and an NB adds in this sonata the music shows you the beginning of a battle of the canon this work consists of one movement allegro in sonata form but for the title and the words canonade and it would be difficult to guess the subject the music which may be described as a study in the Alberti base is decidedly more correct in form than the French of the title page then again Dusek composed a characteristic sonata describing the naval battle and total defeat of the grand Dutch fleet by Admiral Duncan on the 11th of October 1797 but he was engaged in a much more suitable task when he wrote music expressing the feelings of the unfortunate Marie Antoinette there are three sonatas composed by A. Quentin Bouet footnote he is described on the title page as formally composer to several cathedral churches in France Bouet's name is neither in Fittis nor the Pougon Soplement and the footnote number three is for two performers on one instrument in the last movement the first performer is Le Français and he rattles along with the popular tune Saïra while the second the Englishman steadily plays his national air rule Britannia to the close force four at God save the king and Saïra are combined end of chapter 11 and end of the piano forte sonata in southern South Shedlock recording by Jordan Watts Oxfordshire