 Section 15 of The Great Events, Volume 1. The Great Events by Famous Historians, Volume 1. Edited by Charles F. Horn, Rossiter Johnson, and John Rudd. The Foundation of Rome, B.C. 753. Part 2. We have now reached the point at which it is necessary to speak of the relation between the two nations, such as it actually existed. All the nations of antiquity lived in fixed forms, and their civil relations were always marked by various divisions and subdivisions. When cities raised themselves to the rank of nations, we always find a division at first into tribes. Herodotus mentioned such tribes in the colonization of Cyrene, and the same was afterward the case at the foundation of Thurii. But when a place existed anywhere as a distinct township, its nature was characterized by the fact of its citizens being at a certain time divided into gentes, Greek genae, each of which had a common chapel and a common hero. These gentes were united in definite numerical proportions into curiae, Greek fratres. The gentes are not families, but free corporations, sometimes close and sometimes open. In certain cases the whole body of the state might assign to them new associates. The Great Council at Venice was a close body, and no one could be admitted whose ancestors had not been in it. And such also was the case in many oligarchical states of antiquity. All civil communities had a council and an assembly of burgers, that is, a small and a great council. The burgers consisted of the guilds, or gentes, and these again were united, as it were, in parishes. All the Latin towns had a council of one hundred members who were divided into ten curiae. This division gave rise to the name of Decurions, which remained in use as a title of civic magistrates down to the latest times, and through the Lex Giulia was transferred to the constitution of the Italian Municipia. That this council consisted of one hundred persons has been proved by Sivini in the first volume of his history of the Roman law. This constitution continued to exist till a late period of the Middle Ages, but perished when the institution of guilds took the place of municipal constitutions. Giovanni Villani says that previously to the revolution in the twelfth century there were at Florence one hundred buoni nomini, who had the administration of the city. There is nothing in the German cities which answers to this constitution. We must not conceive those hundred to have been nobles. They were an assembly of burgers and country people, as was the case in our small imperial cities, or as in the small cantons of Switzerland. Each of them represented a gens, and they are those whom Propertius calls Patres Pelliti. The Curia of Rome, a cottage covered with straw, was a faithful memorial of the time when Rome stood buried in the night of history as a small country town surrounded by its little domain. The most ancient occurrence which we can discover from the form of the allegory, by a comparison of what happened in other parts of Italy, is a result of the great and continued commotion among the nations of Italy. It did not terminate when the Oscans had been pressed forward from Lake Fuccinas to the Lake of Alba, but continued much longer. The Sabines may have rested for a time, but they advanced far beyond the districts about which we have any traditions. These Sabines began as a very small tribe, but afterward became one of the greatest nations in Italy. For the Maruccians, Caudines, Vestinians, Marcians, Pelignians, and in short all the Sumnite tribes, the Lucanians, the Oskan part of the Brudians, the Bessentians, and several others were all descended from the Sabine stock, and yet there are no traditions about their settlements except in a few cases. At the time to which we must refer the foundation of Rome, the Sabines were widely diffused. It is said that, guided by a bull, they penetrated into a pizza, and thus occupied the country of the Sumnites. It was perhaps at an earlier time that they migrated down the Tiber, whence we there find Sabine towns mixed with Latin ones. Some of their places also existed on the Anio. The country afterward inhabited by the Sabines was probably not occupied by them till a later period, for Filleriae is a Tuscan town, and its population was certainly at one time thoroughly Tyrrhenian. As the Sabines advanced, some Latin towns maintained their independence, others were subdued. Fidenei belonged to the former, but north of it all the country was Sabine. Now by the side of the ancient Roma we find a Sabine town, on the Quirinol and Capitaline close to the Latin town, but its existence is all that we know about it. A tradition states that there previously existed on the Capitaline a Sicilian town of the name of Satturnia, which, in this case, must have been conquered by the Sabines. But whatever we may think of this, as well as of the existence of another ancient town on the Geniculum, it is certain that there were a number of small towns in that district. The two towns could exist perfectly well side by side, as there was a deep march between them. The town on the Palatine, May, for a long time, have been in a state of dependence on the Sabine conqueror, whom tradition calls Titus Tadius. Hence he was slain during the Laurentine sacrifice, and hence also his memory was hateful. The existence of a Sabine town on the Quirinol is attested by the undoubted occurrence there of a number of Sabine chapels, which were known as late as the time of Varo, and from which he proved that the Sabine ritual was adopted by the Romans. This Sabine element in the worship of the Romans has almost always been overlooked, in consequence of the prevailing desire to look upon everything as a Truscan. But, I repeat, there is no doubt of the Sabine settlement, and that it was a result of a great commotion among the tribes of Middle Italy. The tradition that the Sabine women were carried off because there existed no Canubium, and that the rape was followed by a war is undoubtedly a symbolical representation of the relation between the two towns, previous to the establishment of the right of intermarriage. The Sabines had the ascendancy and refused that right, but the Romans gained it by force of arms. There can be no doubt that the Sabines were originally the ruling people, but that in some insurrection of the Romans, various Sabine places, such as Atemne, Fidene and others, were subdued, and thus these Sabines were separated from their kinsmen. The Romans therefore re-established their independence by a war, the result of which may have been such as we read it in the tradition, Romulus being of course set aside, namely that both places as two closely united towns formed a kind of confederacy, each with a senate of one hundred members, a king, an offensive and defensive alliance, and on the understanding that in common deliberations the burgers of each should meet together in the space between the two towns, which was afterward called the Commitium. In this manner they formed a united state in regard to foreign nations. The idea of a double state was not unknown to the ancient writers themselves, although the indications of it are preserved only in scattered passages, especially in the Scolias. The head of Janus, which in the earliest times was represented on the Roman As, is the symbol of it, as has been correctly observed by writers on Roman antiquities. The vacant throne by the side of the cural chair of Romulus points to the time when there was only one king, and represents the equal but quiescent right of the other people. That concord was not of long duration is an historical fact likewise, nor can it be doubted that the Roman king assumed the supremacy over the Sabines, and that in consequence the two councils were united so as to form one senate under one king. It being agreed that the king should be alternately a Roman and a Sabine, and that each time he should be chosen by the other people. The king, however, if displeasing to the non-electing people, was not to be forced upon them, but was to be invested with the Imperium only on condition of the auguries being favourable to him, and of his being sanctioned by the whole nation. The non-electing tribe accordingly had the right of either sanctioning or rejecting his election. In the case of Numa this is related as a fact, but it is only a disguisement of the right derived from the ritual books. In this manner the strange double election, which is otherwise so mysterious and was formerly completely misunderstood, becomes quite intelligible. One portion of the nation elected and the other sanctioned. It being intended that, for example, the Romans should not elect from among the Sabines a king devoted exclusively to their own interests, but one who was at the same time acceptable to the Sabines. Then, perhaps after several generations of a separate existence, the two states became united, the towns ceased to be towns, and the collective body of the burgers of each became tribes, so that the nation consisted of two tribes. The form of addressing the Roman people was from the earliest times Populus Romanus Curaites, which, when its origin was forgotten, was changed into Populus Romanus Curaitium, just as Lys Vendici was afterwards changed into Lys Vendiciarum. This change is more ancient than Livy, the correct expression still continued to be used, but was to a great extent supplanted by the false one. The ancient tradition relates that after the union of the two tribes the name Curaites was adopted is the common designation for the whole people, but this is erroneous, for the name was not used in this sense till a very late period. This designation remained in use, and was transferred to the plebeians at a time when the distinction between Romans and Sabines, between these two and the Luceres, nay, when even that between patricians and plebeians had almost ceased to be noticed. Thus the two towns stood side by side as tribes forming one state, and it is merely a recognition of the ancient tradition when we call the Latins Romnes and the Sabines Titius, that the derivation of these appellations from Romulus and Titus Tatius is incorrect is no argument against the view here taken. Dionysus, who had good materials and made use of a great many, must, as far as the counselor period is concerned, have had more than he gives. There is in particular one important change in the Constitution, concerning which he has only a few words, either because he did not see clearly, or because he was careless. But as regards the kingly period, he was well acquainted with this subject. He says that there was a dispute between the two tribes respecting the Senates, and that Numa settled it by not depriving the Romnes as the first tribe of anything, and by conferring honors on the Titius. This is perfectly clear. The Senate, which had at first consisted of one hundred and now two hundred members, was divided into ten decuries, each being headed by one who was its leader. These are the Decem Primi, and they were taken from the Romnes. They formed the college which, when there was no king, undertook the government, one after another, each for five days, but in such a manner that they always succeeded one another in the same order, as we must believe with Livy, for Dionysus here introduces his Greek notions of the Attic, Pritans, and Plutarch misunderstands the matter altogether. After the example of the Senate, the number of the augurs and Pontiffs also was doubled, so that each college consisted of four members, two being taken from the Romnes, and two from the Titius. Although it is not possible to fix these changes chronologically, as Dionysus and Cicero do, yet they are as historically certain as if we actually knew the kings who introduced them. Such was Rome in the second stage of its development. This period of equalization is one of peace, and is described as the reign of Numa, about whom the traditions are simple and brief. It is the picture of a peaceful condition with a holy man at the head of affairs, like Nicholas Vonderflue in Switzerland. Numa was supposed to have been inspired by the goddess Egeria, to whom he was married in the Grove of the Caminay, and who introduced him into the choir of her sisters. She melted away in tears at his death, and thus gave her name to the spring which arose out of her tears. Such a peace of forty years, during which no nation rose against Rome because Numa's piety was communicated to the surrounding nations, is a beautiful idea, but historically impossible in those times, and manifestly a poetical fiction. The death of Numa forms the conclusion of the first Seculum, and an entirely new period follows, just as in the Theogony of Hesiod the age of heroes is followed by the Iron Age. There is evidently a change, and an entirely new order of things is conceived to have arisen. Up to this point we've had nothing except poetry, but with Tullus Hestilius a kind of history begins, that is, events are related which must be taken in general as historical, though in the light in which they are presented to us they are not historical. Thus, for example, the destruction of Alba is historical, and so in all probabilities the reception of the Albans at Rome. The conquests of Ancus Martius are quite credible, and they appear like an oasis of real history in the midst of fables. A similar case occurs once in the Chronicle of Cologne. In the Abyssinian annals we find in the thirteenth century a very minute account of one particular event in which we recognize a piece of contemporaneous history, though we meet with nothing historical either before or after. The history which then follows is like a picture viewed from the wrong side, like Phantasmata. The names of the kings are perfectly fictitious. No man can tell how long the Roman kings reigned as we do not know how many there were, since it is only for the sake of the number that seven were supposed to have ruled, seven being a number which appears in many relations, especially in important astronomical ones. Hence the chronological statements are utterly worthless. We must conceive, as a succession of centuries, the period from the origin of Rome down to the times wherein were constructed the enormous works, such as the great drains, the wall of Servius and others, which were actually executed under the kings and rival the great architectural works of the Egyptians. Romulus and Numa must be entirely set aside, but a long period follows in which the nations gradually unite and develop themselves until the kingly government disappears and makes way for republican institutions. But it is nevertheless necessary to relate the history, such as it has been handed down, because much depends upon it. There was not the slightest connection between Rome and Alba, nor is it even mentioned by the historians, though they suppose that Rome received its first inhabitants from Alba. But in the reign of Tullus Hostilius the two cities on a sudden appear as enemies. Each of the two nations seeks war and tries to allure fortune by representing itself as the injured party, each wishing to declare war. Both sent ambassadors to demand reparation for robberies which had been committed. The form of procedure was this. The ambassadors, that is the Fethiols, related the grievances of their city to every person they met. They then proclaimed them in the marketplace of the other city. And if, after the expiration of thrice ten days, no reparation was made, they said, we have done enough and now return. We're upon the elders at home held counsel as to how they should obtain redress. In this formulation, accordingly, the res, that is, the surrender of the guilty and the restoration of the stolen property, must have been demanded. Now it is related that the two nations sent such ambassadors quite simultaneously, but that Tullus Hostilius retained the Alba ambassadors until he was certain that the Romans at Alba had not obtained the justice due to them, and had therefore declared war. After this he admitted the ambassadors into the Senate, and the reply made to their complaint was that they themselves had not satisfied the demands of the Romans. Livy then continues, Bellum in Trigesimum diem dexerant. But the real formula is post Trigesimum diem. And we may ask, why did Livy or the analyst whom he followed make this alteration? For an obvious reason. A person may ride from Rome to Alba in a couple of hours, though that the detention of the Alba ambassadors at Rome for thirty days without their hearing what was going on in the meantime at Alba was a matter of impossibility. Livy saw this, and therefore altered the formula. But the ancient poet was not concerned about such things, and without hesitation increased the distance in his imagination, and represented Rome and Alba as great states. The whole description of the circumstances under which the fate of Alba was decided is just as manifestly poetical, but we shall dwell upon it for a while in order to show how a semblance of history may arise. Between Rome and Alba there was a ditch, Fossa Cluilia or Cluelia, and there must have been a tradition that the Albas had been encamped there. Livy and Dionysus mentioned that Cluilius, a general of the Albans, had given the ditch its name, having perished there. It was necessary to mention the latter's circumstance in order to explain the fact that afterward their general was a different person, Metius Fuffetius, and yet to be able to connect the name of that ditch with the Albans. The two states committed the decision of their dispute to champions, and Dionysus says the tradition did not agree as to whether the name of the Roman champions was Heratii or Curiatii. Although he himself, as well as Livy, assumes that it was Heratii, probably because it was thus stated by the majority of the analysts, who would suspect any uncertainty here if it were not for this passage of Dionysus. The contest of the three brothers on each side is a symbolical indication that each of the two states was then divided into three tribes. Attempts have indeed been made to deny that the three men were brothers of the same birth, and thus to remove the improbability. But the legend went even further, representing the three brothers on each side as the sons of two sisters and is born on the same day. This contains the suggestion of a perfect equality between Rome and Alba. The contest ended in the complete submission of Alba. It did not remain faithful, however, and in the ensuing struggle with the Etruscans, Metius Fuffetius acted the part of a traitor toward Rome, but not being able to carry his design into effect, he afterward fell upon the fugitive Etruscans. Tullus ordered him to be torn to pieces and Alba to be raised to the ground, the noblest Alban families being transplanted to Rome. The death of Tullus is no less poetical. Like Numa, he undertook to call down lightning from heaven, but he thereby destroyed himself and his house. If we endeavor to discover the historical substance of these legends, we at once find ourselves in a period when Rome no longer stood alone, but had colonies with Roman settlers, possessing a third of the territory and exercising sovereign power over the original inhabitants. This was the case in a small number of towns, for the most part of ancient Sicilian origin. It is an undoubted fact that Alba was destroyed, and that after this events the towns of the Preci Latini formed an independent and compact Confederacy. But whether Alba fell in the manner described, whether it was ever compelled to recognize the supremacy of Rome, and whether it was destroyed by the Romans and Latins conjointly, or by the Romans or Latins alone, are questions which no human ingenuity can solve. It is however most probable that the destruction of Alba was the work of the Latins who rose against her supremacy, whether in this case the Romans received the Albans among themselves and thus became their benefactors instead of destroyers, must ever remain a matter of uncertainty. That Alban families were transplanted to Rome cannot be doubted, any more than the Preci Latini from that time constituted a compact state. If we consider that Alba was situated in the midst of the Latin districts, that the Alban mount was their common sanctuary, and that the Grove of Fentina was a place of assembly for all the Latins, it must appear more probable that Rome did not destroy Alba, but that it perished in an insurrection of the Latin towns, and that the Romans strengthened themselves by receiving the Albans into their city. Whether the Albans were the first that settled on the Selian hill, or whether it was previously occupied, cannot be decided. The account which places the foundation of the town on the Selius in the reign of Romulus suggests that a town existed there before the reception of the Albans. But what is the authenticity of this account? A third tradition represents it as an Etruscan settlement of Selius Vibena. This much is certain that the destruction of Alba greatly contributed to increase the power of Rome. There can be no doubt that a third town, which seems to have been very populous, now existed on the Selius and on a portion of the Esquilier. Such a settlement close to other towns was made for the sake of mutual protection. Between the two more ancient towns there continued to be a marsh or swamp, and Rome was protected on the south by stagnant water. But between Rome and the third town there was a dry plain. Rome also had a considerable suburb toward the Aventine, protected by a wall and a ditch, as is implied in the story of Remus. He is a personification of the plebs leaping across the ditch from the side of the Aventine, though we ought to be very cautious in regard to allegory. The most ancient town on the Palatine was Rome. The Sabine town also must have had a name, and I have no doubt that according to common analogy it was Quirium, the name of its citizens being Quirites. This I look upon as certain. I have almost as little doubt that the town on the Selian was called Lucerum, because when it was united with Rome its citizens were called Lucertes, Luceres. The ancients derived this name from Lucomo, king of the Tuscans, or from Luceres, king of Ardia. The latter derivation probably meaning that the race was Tirino-Latin, because Ardia was the capital of that race. Rome was thus enlarged by a third element which, however, did not stand on a footing of equality with the two others, but was in a state of dependence, similar to that of Ireland relatively to Great Britain, down to the year 1782. But although the Luceres were obliged to recognize the supremacy of the two older tribes, they were considered as an integral part of the whole state, that is, as a third tribe with an administration of its own, but inferior rights. What throws light upon our way here is a passage of Festus, who is a great authority on matters of Roman antiquity, because he made his excerpts from various flakas. It is only in a few points that, in my opinion, either of them was mistaken. All the rest of the mistakes in Festus may be accounted for by the imperfection of the abridgment. Festus not always understanding various flakas. The statement of Festus to which I hear elude is that Tarquinius' superbus increased the number of the vestals in order that each tribe might have two. With this we must connect a passage from the Tenth Book of Livy, where he says that the augurs were to represent the three tribes. The numbers in the Roman colleges of priests were always multiples, either of two or of three. The latter was the case with the Vestal Virgins and the Great Flamines, and the former were the augurs, pontiffs, and fetiols, who represented only the first two tribes. Previously to the passing of the Algolnian Law, the numbers of augurs was four, and subsequently five plebeians were added. The basis of this increase was different, it is true, but the ancient rule of the number being a multiple of three was preserved. The number of pontiffs, which was then four, was increased only by four. This might seem to contradict what has just been stated, but it has been overlooked that Cicero speaks of five new ones having been added, for he included the Pontifex Maximus, which Livy does not. In like manner there were twenty fetiols, ten for each tribe. To the Salii on the Palatine Numa added another brotherhood on the Quirinol. Thus we everywhere see a manifest distinction between the first two tribes and the third, the latter being treated as inferior. The third tribe then consisted of free citizens, but they had not the same rights as the members of the first two, yet its members considered themselves superior to all other people, and their relation to the other two tribes was the same as that existing between the Venetian citizens of the mainland and the Nobili. A Venetian nobleman treated those citizens with far more condescension than he displayed toward others, providing they did not presume to exercise any authority in political matters. Whoever belonged to the Lisseres called himself a Roman, and if the very dictator of Tusculum had come to Rome a man of the third tribe there would have looked upon him as an inferior person, though he himself had no influence whatever. Tullus was succeeded by Ancus. Tullus appears as one of the Romnes, and as descended from Hostus Hostilius, one of the companions of Romulus. But Ancus was a Sabine, a grandson of Numa. The accounts about him are to some extent historical, and there is no trace of poetry in them. In his reign the development of the state again made a step in advance. According to the ancient tradition Rome was at war with the Latin towns, and carried it on successfully. How many of the particular events which are recorded may be historical, I am unable to say. But that there was a war is credible enough. Ancus, it is said, carried away after this war many thousands of Latins, and gave them settlements on the Aventine. The ancients express various opinions about him. Sometimes he is described as a captator or a popularis, sometimes he is called bonus Ancus. Like the first three kings he is said to have been a legislator, a fact which is not mentioned in reference to the later kings. He is, moreover, stated to have established the Colony of Ostia, and thus his kingdom must have extended as far as the mouth of the Tiber. Ancus and Tullus seemed to me to be historical personages, but we can scarcely suppose that the latter was succeeded by the former and that the events assigned to their reigns actually occurred in them. These events must be conceived in the following manner. Toward the end of the fourth reign, when, after a feud which lasted many years, the Romans came to an understanding with the Latins about the renewal of the long-neglected alliance, Rome gave up its claims to the supremacy which it could not maintain, and indemnified itself by extending its dominion in another and safer direction. The eastern colonies joined the Latin towns which still existed. This is evident, though it is nowhere expressly mentioned, and a portion of the Latin country was ceded to Rome, with which the rest of the Latins formed a connection of friendship, perhaps of isopolity. Rome here acted as wisely as England did when she recognized the independence of North America. In this manner Rome obtained a territory. The many thousand settlers whom Ancus is said to have led to the Aventine were the population of the Latin towns which became subject to Rome, and they were far more numerous than the two ancient tribes even after the latter had been increased by their union with the third tribe. In these country districts lay the power of Rome, and from them she raised the armies with which she carried on her wars. It would have been natural to admit this population as a fourth tribe, but such a measure was not agreeable to the Romans. The constitution of the state was completed, and was looked upon as a sacred trust in which no change ought to be introduced. It was with the Greeks and Romans as it was with our own ancestors, whose separate tribes clung to their hereditary laws, and differed from one another in this respect as much as they did from the galls in the color of their eyes and hair. They knew well enough that it was in their power to alter the laws, but they considered them as something which ought not to be altered. Thus, when the Emperor Otto was doubtful on a point of law of inheritance, he caused the case to be decided by an ordeal or judgment of God. In Sicily one city had Culsidian, another Doric laws, although their populations, as well as their dialects, were greatly mixed. But the leaders of those colonies had been Culsidians in the one case, and Dorians in the others. The Culsidians, moreover, were divided into four, the Dorians into three tribes, and their differences in these respects were manifested even in their weights and measures. The divisions into three tribes was a genuine Latin institution, and there are reasons which render it probable that the Sabines had a division of their states into four tribes. The transportation of the Latins to Rome must be regarded as the origin of the plebs. End of Section 15. Section 16 of the Great Events, Volume 1. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Larry Wilson. The Great Events by Famous Historians, Volume 1. Edited by Charles F. Horne. Rassiter Johnson and John Rudd. Prince Jimu founds Japan's capital, B.C. 660. Sir Edward Reed, the Nihongi. Prince Jimu is the founder of the Empire of Japan, according to Japanese tradition. The whole of his history is overlaid with myth and legend, but it points to the immigration of Western Asiatics by way of Korea into the Japanese islands of Izumo and Kyushu. The historical records of the Japanese relate that Jimu, accompanied by an elder brother, Prince Itsuze, started from their grandfather's palace on Mount Takaklice. They marched with a large number of followers, a horde of men, women, and children, as well as a band of armed men. On landing in Japan after many years wandering by sea and land, they had serious conflicts with the native tribes. They eventually succeeded in overcoming all opposition and in conquering the country, so that Prince Jimu was enabled to build a palace and set up a capital, Kashihabara Inyamoto. This prince is regarded by Japanese historians as the founder of the Japanese Empire. He is said to have reigned 75 years after his accession and who have died at the age of 127 years, and his burial place is pointed out in the northern side of Mount Unebi in the province of Yamoto. Prince Jimu, or whoever was the foreign ruler who conquered and founded an empire in Japan, must have been a bold, enterprising, and sagacious man. The islands he subdued were barbarous and he civilized them. The inhabitants were warlike and cruel and he kept them in peace. He founded a dynasty which extended its dominion over Nagato, Izumo, and Owari and still has representatives in rulers whose people are by far the most progressive dwellers in the East. That part of the following historical matter, which is translated from the old Japanese chronicle, the Nihongi, is marked by local color and by oriental characteristics, whereby it curiously contrasts with the plain recitals of modern and Western history. Sir Edward Reid, there are endless varying legends about this god period of Japan. All that we need now say in way of reciting the legends of the gods has relation to the descent of the Mikados of Japan from the deities. It was the misconduct of Suzano that drove the sun goddess into the cave and for this misconduct she was banished. Some say that instead of proceeding to his place of banishment, he descended and with his son Ida Kizo no Mikoto upon Shiraga in Korea and not liking the place went back by vessel to the bank of the Inokawa River in Izumo, Japan. At the time of their descent, Ida Kizo had many plants or seeds of trees with him, but he planted none in Shiraga but took them across with him and scattered them from Kuisu all over Japan so that the whole country became green with trees. It is said that Ida Kizo is respected as the god of merit and has worshipped in Okuni. His two sisters also took care of the plantation. One of the gods who reigned over the country in the prehistoric period was Ohonomuchi who is said by some to be the son of Suzano and by others to be one of his later descendants and which is right, it is more than we can say. Remarked one of my scholarly friends. However, during his reign, he was anxious about the people and consulting with Tsukuna no Mikoto applied his whole heart we are told to their good government and they all became loyal to him. One time he said to his friends just named, do you think we are governing the people well? And his friend answered, in some respects well and in some not. So that they were frank and honest with each other in those days. When Tsukuna Nikono went away, Ohonomuchi said, it is I who should govern this country. Is there any who will assist me? Then there appeared over the sea a divine light and there came a God floating and floating and said, you cannot govern the country without me. And this proved to be the God Ohomiwa Nokami who built the palace in Mimuro in Yamoto and dwelt therein. He affords a direct link to the Mikado family for his daughter became the Empress of the first historic jimu. Her name was Ume Tatara Isizuhimi. All the descendants of her father are named like him Ohomiwa Nokami. And it is said that the present Empress of Japan is probably a descendant of this God. As regards the descent of the Emperor Jimu himself, we already know that Nihingi No Mikoto, the sovereign grandchild of the Sangatas was sent down with the sacred symbols of empire given to him in the sun by the Sangatas herself before he started for the earth. Now Nihingi married, reader forgive me for quoting the lady's name and for her father's, Konohane no Sakuyahimi, Ohoyama Zuminokami and their pair had three sons of whom the last named Hovorou no Mikoto succeeded to the throne. He is sometimes called by the following symbol and possibly endearing name, Amatsu Hitakahi Kohodemi no Mikoto. He married Toyotami Hime, the daughter of the sea god and they had a son, Ogaya Fukiaidesu no Mikoto. Born it is said under an unfinished roof of Cormorant's wings. The succeeded the father and who married Tamayori Hime, also a daughter of the sea god. This illustrious couple had four sons of whom the last succeeded to the throne in the year BC 660. He was named Kamuyama Toyo no Mikoto, but posterity has fortunately simplified his designation to the now familiar Jumu Tenno, the first historic emperor of Japan and the ancestor of the present emperor. The histories of Japan prepared under the sanction of the present Japanese government date to the commencement of the historic period from the first year of the reign of the first emperor Jumu Tenno who is said to have ruled for 76 years. This from BC 660 to 585. Some persons consider that his reign and a few reigns that succeeded it probably or possibly belong to the legendary period because while on the one hand the emperor Jumu is described as the founder of the present empire and the ancestor of the present emperor, on the other he is described as the fourth son of Hukai Fukuyazu no Mikoto who was fifth in direct descent from the beautiful sun goddess Tencho Daijin. But as no such thing as writing existed in Japan in those days or for many centuries afterward, it would not be surprising if a real monarch should have a mythical origin assigned to him. And as I have quite lately heard from the guns firing at Nagasaki, an imperial salute in honor of his coronation and have seen the flags waving over the capital city Tokyo, in honor of the birthday, the emperor Jumu is quite historical enough for my present purpose. The commencement of his reign shall fix for us as it does for others the Japanese year one which was 660 years prior to our year one so that any date of the Christian era can be converted into one of the Japanese era by the addition of 660 years and vice versa. Some of the emperors will be found to have lived very long lives, no doubt. But as I have said elsewhere, none of them lived nearly so long as our Adam, the Thuzala and others in whose longevity so many of us profess to believe. And besides, it is impossible for me to attempt to correct a chronology which Japanese scholars and Englishmen versed in the Japanese language have thus far left without specific correction. Deferring for after consideration the incidents of the successive imperial reigns except insofar as they bear directly upon the descent of the crown, let us then first glance at the succession of emperors and imprises who have ruled in the morning land. After the death of emperor Jumu, there appears to have been an antagonum for three years. Although it is seldom taken account of, the second emperor Suisei who was the fifth son of the first emperor have been ascended to the throne BC 581 and reigned until 549. The cause of the antagonum appears to have been the extreme grief which Suisei felt at the death of his father in consequence of which he committed the administration of the empire for a time to one of his relatives, an unworthy fellow as he proved named Tagishi Mimi Nomikoto who tried to assassinate his master and seized the throne for himself and who was put to death by Suisei for his pains. The fifth son of the emperor Jumu was nominated by him as the successor and it is probable that older sons were living and passed over and that the throne was inherited in part by nomination even in this its first transfer. Some writers on Japanese history profess to see nothing in the pantheon of Japan pictured in the Kojiki and the Hoki, nothing more than a collection of distinguished personages who lived and labored and contended in the country before the historic period, thus bringing deified men and women down to earth again. Such persons accept the records of Jumu Tenno's origin as essentially accurate in so far as they state what is human and reasonable, rejecting them only when they set forth what is supernatural and to them unbelievable. Others on the contrary consider or profess to consider the supernatural portions of those narratives as perfectly trustworthy and discredit only those statements concerning the first of the sacred emperors which would seem in any way to detract from his divinity. I should be sorry to have to argue the case with either of these parties but I must take the liberty of accepting as sufficiently accurate as much of the recorded lives of Jumu and his successors as the modern prosaic histories in Japan are content to put forth and no more. Proceeding upon this basis there is not much to be said of the reigns of the Mikavos who ruled before the Christian era beyond what has been already stated. As regards the first emperor, his ancestor, Nini-ni-gi no Mikoto, whether a god or not or whether he came down from the sun by means of the bridge of heaven or not, appears to have established his residence at the ancient Himuka, now Hiyuga. There it was that Jumu Tenno first presided and this it was that he started on his historic and memorable career. The central parts of Japan were militarily occupied by rebels whose names are preserved and it was to subdue them that he proceeded eastward. He stopped for three years at Takashima constructing the necessary vessels for crossing the waters and then in the course of years making his way victoriously as far as Nanieva, the modern Osaka, encountered his foes at Kawachi and defeated them, the chief general being left dead on the battlefield. Jumu was now sole master of Japan, as they are known, and in the following year he mounted the throne. The eastern and northern parts of the country were, however, still and long afterward, peopled by the Ayuno race, who were at a later period treated as troublesome savages and conquered by the famous prince Yamato Dake by help of the sacred sword. The spot selected by the emperor, Jumu, for his capital was Kashiwabara in the province of Yamoto, not far from the peasant western capital of Kyoto. He there did honor to the gods, married, built himself a palace, and deposited in the throne room the sacred mirror, sword, and ball, the insignia of the imperial power handed down from the sun goddess. He organized two imperial guards, one as a bodyguard to protect the interior of the palace and the other to act as sentinels around the palace. End of section 16. Section 17 of the Great Events, Volume 1. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. Recording by Larry Wilson. The Great Events by Famous Historians, Volume 1. Edited by Charles F. Horne, Roseter Johnson, and John Rudd. Prince Jumu founds Japan's capital, B.C. 660, by the Nehongi. The emperor Kami Yamamoto, he had a Biko's personal name, Hiko Hoho Demi. He was the fourth child of Ikudan Gizitake Ugaia Fugia Heizu Nomikoto. His mother's name was Tamayori Hime, daughter of the sea god. From his birth, this emperor was of clear intelligence and resolute will. At the age of 15, he was made heir to the throne. When he grew up, he made Ahiratsuhimi, the district of Ata in the province of Iuga, and made her his consort. By her, he had Takishi Mimi Nomikoto and Kisu Mimi Nomikoto. When he reached the age of 45, he addressed his elder brothers and his children saying, of old, our heavenly deities, Takami Musubi Nomikoto and Ohohirume Nomikoto pointing to this land of fair rice ears of the fertile reed plain, gave it to our heavenly ancestor, Mikohono Ninigi Nomikoto. Thereupon, Mikohono Ninigi Nomikoto, throwing open the berry of heaven and clearing the cloud path, urged on his superhuman course until he came to rest. At this time, the world was given over to widespread desolation. It was an age of darkness and disorder. In this gloom, therefore, he fostered justice and so governed this western border. Our imperial ancestors and imperial parent, like gods, like sages, accumulated happiness and amassed glory. Many years elapsed from the date when our heavenly ancestor descended until now it is over 1,792,470 years. But the remote regions do not yet enjoy the blessings of imperial rule. Every town has always been allowed to have its lord and every village its chief, who each one for himself makes division of territory and practices mutual aggression and conflict. Now, I have heard from the ancient of the sea and in the east there is a fair land encircled on all sides by blue mountains. Moreover, there is there one who flew down riding in a heavenly rock boat. I think that this land will undoubtedly be suitable for an extension of the heavenly task so that its glory should fill the universe. It is doubtless the center of the world. The person who flew down was, I believe, Niki Hayahi. Why should we not proceed thither and make it the capital? All the imperial princes answered and said, the truth of this is manifest. This thought is constantly present to our minds also. Let us go thither quickly. This was the year Kinoyetora, 51st of the great year, Kinoyetora. In that year in winter on the Kanouto Toridei, the fifth of the 10th month, the new moon of which was on the day Hinotomi, the emperor in person led the imperial princes and the naval force on an expedition against the east. When he arrived at Hayasuigate, there was there a fisherman who came riding in a boat. The emperor summoned him and then inquired of him saying, who art thou? He answered and said, thy servant is a country god and his name is Utsuhiko. I angle for fish in the bays of the ocean. Hearing that the son of the heavenly deity was coming, therefore I forthwith came to receive him. Again he inquired of him saying, canst thou act as my guide? He answered and said, I will do so. The emperor ordered the end of Apollo Shihih would to be given to the fisher and caused him to be taken and pulled into the imperial vessel of which he was made pilot. A name was especially granted to him and he was called Shihine Utsuhiko. This was the first ancestor of the Yamoto no Atahe. Proceeding on their voyage, they arrived at Utsuhiko in the land of Tsukushi. At this time, there appeared the ancestors of Kunitsuko of Utsuhiko, named Utsuhiko and Utsuhimi. They built a palace raised on one pillar on the banks of the river Utsuh and offered them a banquet. Then by imperial command, Utsutsuhimi was given in marriage to the emperor's attendant minister, Amanotane No Mikoto. Now Amanotane No Mikoto was the remote ancestor, Anakatomi Uji. 11th month, ninth day, the emperor arrived at the harbor of Oka in the land of Tsukushi. 12th month, 27th day, he arrived at the province of Aki where he dwelt in the palace of Ye. The Yurki no To'u bring third month, sixth day, going onward, he entered the land of Kibi and built the temporary palace in which he dwelt. It was called the palace of Takashima. Three years passed during which time he set in order the helms of his ships and prepared to store provisions. It was his desire by single effort to subdue the empire. The year Tsuchinue, Muma, spring, second month, 11th day, the imperial forces at length proceeded eastward, the proud one ship touching the stern of another. Just when they reached Cape Naniho, they encountered a current of great swiftness where upon that place was called Namahaya, wave swept, or Namihana, wave flower. It is now called Naniha, which is a corruption of this. Third month, 10th day, proceeding upwards against the stream, they went straight on and arrived at the port of Awokumu Nishiradate in the township of Kusaka in the province of Kafuchi. Summer, fourth month, ninth day, the imperial forces in Marshall Array marched on to Tatsuta. The road was narrow and precipitous and the men were unable to march at rest, so they returned and again endeavored to go eastward, crossing over Mount Ikoma. In this way, they entered the inner country. Now when Nagatsune Hiko heard this, he said, the object of the children of the heavenly deity and coming hither is assuredly to rob me of my country. So he straightway levied all the forces under his dominion and intercepted them at the hill of Kusaka. A battle was engaged and Itsu no Mikoto was hit by a random arrow on the elbow. The imperial forces were unable to advance against the enemy. The emperor was vexed and resolved in his inmost heart a divine plan saying, I am the descendant of the sun goddess and if I proceed against the sun to attack the enemy, I shall act contrary to the way of heaven, better to retreat and make a show of weakness, then sacrificing to the gods of heaven and earth and bringing on our backs the might of the sun goddess, let us follow her rays and trample them down. If we do so, the enemy will assuredly be routed of themselves and we shall not stain our swords with blood. They all said it is good. Thereupon he gave orders to the army saying, wait a while and advance no further. So he withdrew his forces and the enemy also did not dare to attack him. He then retired to the port of Kusaka where he set up shields and made a war-like show. Therefore the name of this port was changed to Tadetsu which is now corrupted to Tadetsu. Before this at the battle of Kusaka there was a man who hid in a great tree and by so doing escaped danger. So pointing to this tree he said, I am grateful to it as to my mother. Therefore the people of the day called the place Omonoki no Mura. Fifth month, eighth day. The army arrived at the port of Yamaki in Chinu also called Port Yamanoi. Now itsuse no Mikoto's arrow wound was extremely painful. He grasped his sword and striking a martial attitude and said, how exasperated it is that a man should die of a wound received with the hands of slaves and should not avenge it. The people of that day therefore called the place Omonoki no Mura. Proceeding onward they reached Mount Kama in the land of Kin where itsuse no Mikoto died in the army and was therefore buried at Mount Kama. Six month 23rd day. The army arrived at the village of Nagusa where they put to death the Tohei of Nagusa. Finally they crossed the Muir of Samo and arrived at the village of Kami'in Kumano. Here he embarked in the rock boat of heaven and leading his army proceeded onward by slow degrees. In the midst of the sea they suddenly met with a violent wind and the imperial vessel was tossed about. Then Ina Ihi no Mikoto exclaimed and said, Alas, my ancestors were heavenly deities and my mother was a goddess of the sea. Why do they harass me by land and why moreover do they harass me by sea? When he had said this he drew his sword and plunged into the sea where he became changed into the god Sabimochi. Miki Iino no Mikoto also indignant at this said, My mother and my aunt are both sea goddesses. Why do they raise great villos to overwhelm us? So treading upon the waves he went to the eternal land. The emperor was now alone with the imperial prince Tagishi Mimi no Mikoto. Leading his army forward he arrived at Port Arasaka in Kumano, also called Nishiki Bay where he put to death the Tohei of Nishiki. At this time the gods belt up a poisonous vapor from which everyone suffered. For this reason the imperial army was again unable to exert itself. Then there was there a man by name Kumano no Takakuraji who unexpectedly had a dream in which Ama Terasu no Ohokami Mokutake Mika Tsuchi no Kami saying, I still hear a sound of disturbance from the central land of Reed Plains. Do thou again go and chastise it? Takimika Tsuchi no Kami answered and said, Even if I go not I can send down my sword with which I subdued the land upon which the country will of its own accord become peaceful. To this Ama Terasu no Kami assented. There upon Takimika Tsuchi no Kami addressed Takakuraji saying, My sword which is called Wutsunomi Kama I will now place in the storehouse. Do thou take it and present it to the heavenly grandchild? Takakuraji said. Yes, and there upon awoke. The next morning as instructed in his dream he opened the storehouse and on looking in there was indeed there a sword which had fallen down from heaven and was standing upside down on the plank floor of the storehouse. So he took it and offered it to the emperor. At this time the emperor happened to be asleep. He awoke suddenly and said, Oh, what a long time I have slept. On inquiry he found that the troops who had been affected by the poison had all recovered their senses and were afoot. The emperor then endeavored to advance into the interior. But among the mountains it was so precipitous that there was no road by which they could travel and they wandered about, not knowing wither to direct their march. Then Amaterasu no Ohokami instructed the emperor in a dream of the night saying, I will now send the Yatakarasu, make it thy guide through the land. Then there did indeed appear the Yatakarasu flying down from the void. The emperor said, The coming of this crow is in due accordance with my auspicious dream. How grand, the house splendid. My imperial ancestor, Amaterasu no Ohokami, deserves their weth to assist me in creating the hereditary institution. At this time Hinoomi no Mikoto, ancestor the Oho Tomokaus, taking with him Oho Kume as commander of the main body, guided by the direction taken by the crow, looked up to it and followed after until at length they arrived at the district of Lower Uda. Therefore they named the place which they reached the village of Ukechi no Uda. At this time by an imperial order he commended Hinoomi no Mikoto saying, Thou art faithful and brave and art moreover a successful guide. Therefore will I give thee a new name and will call thee Michi no Ohmi. Autumn, eight month, second day. The emperor said to seven Okeshi, the elder and Okeshi the younger. These two were chiefs of the district of Uda. Now Okeshi the elder did not come, but Okeshi the younger came and making obeisance at the gate of the camp declared as follows. Thy servant's elder brother, Okeshi, the elder shows signs of resistance. Hearing that the descendant of heaven was about to arrive, he forthwith raised an army with which to make an attack. But having seen from afar the might of the imperial army he was afraid and did not dare to oppose it. Therefore he has secretly placed his troops in ambush and has built for the occasion a new palace in the hall of which he has prepared engines. It is his intention to invite the emperor to a banquet there and then to do him a mischief. I pray that this treachery be noted and that good care be taken to make preparations against it. The emperor straightway sent Michino Omino Mikoto to observe the signs of his opposition. Michino Omino Mikoto clearly ascertained his hostile intentions and being greatly enraged shattered at him in a blustering manner. Rage, thou shalt thy self dwell at the house which thou hast made. So grasping his sword and drawing his bow, he urged him and drove him within it. Okeshi the elder being guilty before heaven and the matter not admitting of excuse of his own accord trod upon the engine and was crushed to death. His body was then brought out and decapitated and the blood which flowed from it reached above the ankle. Therefore that place was called Uda no Chihara. After this Okeshi the younger prepared a great feast of beef and sake with which he entertained the imperial army. The emperor distributed this flesh and sake to the common soldiers upon which they sang the following verses. In the high castle tree of Uda, I set a snare for woodcock and waited, but no woodcock came to it. A valiant well came to it. This is called the kume song. In the present time, when the department of music performs this song, there is still the abatement of great and small by the hand as well as a distinction of course and fine in the notes of the voice. This is by a rule handed down from antiquity. After this the emperor wished to respect the land of Yoshino. So taking personal command of the light troops he made a progress round by the way of Uketimura in Uda. When he came to Yoshino, there was a man who came out of a well. He shone and had a tail. The emperor inquired of him saying, what man art thou? He answered and said, my servant is a local deity and his name is Wihikari. He it is who was the first ancestor of Yoshinodo Obito. Proceeding a little further, there was another man with a tail who burst open a rock and came forth from it. The emperor inquired of him saying, what man art thou? He answered and said, my servant is the child of Iha Oshiwake. It was he who was the first ancestor of Kuzu of Yoshino. Then skirting the river he proceeded westward when there appeared another man who had made a fish trap and was catching fish. On the emperor making inquiry of him he answered and said, my servant is the son of Nihimotsu. He it is who was the first ancestor of Hukahi Ata. Ninth month, fifth day, the emperor ascended to the peak of Mt. Takakura in Uda when he had a prospect over all the land. On Kunimihil there were described 80 bandits. Moreover, at the eclivity of the Meisaka, there was posted an army of women and at the eclivity of Osaka, there was stationed a force of men. At the eclivity of Sumisaka, there was placed burning charcoal. This was the origin of the names Meisaka, Wusaka and Sumisaka. Again, there was the army of Yeshiki which covered all the village of Ihare. All the places occupied by the enemy were strong positions and therefore the roads were cut off and obstructed so that there was no room for passage. The emperor indignant at this made prayer on that night in person and then fell asleep. The heavenly deity appeared to him in a dream and instructed him saying, hey, girth from within the shrine of the heavenly Mount Kaguru and of it make 80 heavenly platters. Also make sacred jars and therewith sacrifice to the gods of heaven and earth. Moreover, pronounce a solemn implication. If thou doest so, the enemy will render submission of their own accord. The emperor received with reverence the directions given in his dream and proceeded to carry them into execution. Now, Kishi the Younger again addressed the emperor saying, there are in the province of Yamoto in the village of Yeshiki, 80 Yeshiki bandits. Moreover, in the village of Takawahari, some say Katsuraki, there are 80 Agane bandits. All these tribes intend to give battle to the emperor and I servant his anxious in his own mind on his account. It were now good to take clay from the heavenly Mount Kaguru and therewith to make heavenly platters with which to sacrifice to the gods of the heavenly shrines and of the earthly shrines. If after doing so, thou dost attack the enemy, they may be easily driven off. The emperor, who had already taken the words of his dream for a good omen, when he now heard the words of Ukeshi the Younger, was still more pleased in his heart because she hid Netsuhiko to put on ragged garments and a grass hat and to disguise himself as an old man. He also caused Ukeshi the Younger to cover himself with a winnowing tray, so as to assume the appearance of an old woman and then address them saying, do ye, too, proceed to the heavenly Mount Kaguru and secretly take earth from its summit. Having done so, return hither. By means of you, I shall then divine whether my undertaking will be successful or not. Do your utmost to be watchful. Now the enemy's army filled the road and made all passage impossible. Then she hid Netsuhiko, prayed and said, if it be possible for our emperor to conquer this land, let the road by which we must travel become open, but if not, let the brigands surely oppose our passage. Having thus spoken, they set forth and went straight onward. Now the hostile band, seeing the two men, laughed loudly and said, ho-hatanankuth old man and old woman. So with one accord they left the road and allowed the two men to pass and proceed to the mountain, where they took the clay and returned with it. Hereupon the emperor was greatly pleased and with this clay he made 80 platters, 80 heavenly small jars and sacred jars with which he went to the upper waters of the river Nifu and sacrificed to the gods of heaven and earth. Immediately on the Asahara plain by the river of Uda, it became as it were like foam on the water, the result of the curse cleaving to them. Moreover the emperor went on to utter a vow saying, I will now make ame in the 80 platters without using water. If the ame is formed, then shall I assuredly without effort and without recourse to the might of arms reduce the empire to peace. So he made ame, which forthwith became formed of itself. Again he made a vow saying, I will now take the sacred jars and sink them in the river Nifu. If the fishes, whether great or small, become everyone drunken and are carried down the stream like as it were to floating maki leaves, then shall I assuredly succeed in establishing this land. But if this be not so, there will never be any results. Thereupon he sank the jars in the river with their mouths downward. After a while the fish all came to the surface, gaping, gasping as they floated down the stream. Then Shihinetsuhiko, seeing this, represented it to the emperor, who was greatly rejoiced. And plucking up a 500-branch masakaki tree of the upper waters of the river Nifu, he did worship wherewith to all the gods. It was with this that the custom began of selling sacred jars. At this time he commanded Michino Omi Nomikoto saying, we are now in person about to celebrate a public festival to Takamimusubi Nomikoto. And I appoint the ruler of the festival and I grant thee the title of Izu Himi. The earthen jars, which are set up, shall be called Izube, or sacred jars. The fire shall be called Izu-no-kagu-tsuchi, or sacred fire-elder. The water shall be called Izu-no-mizuha-nome, or sacred water-female. The food shall be called Uzu-ka-nome, or sacred food-female. The firewood shall be called Izu-no-yama-tsuchi, or sacred mountain-elder. And the grass shall be called Izu-no-no-tsuchi, or sacred moor-elder. Winter 10th month, first day. The emperor tasted the food of Izube and arraigned his troops set forth upon his march. He first of all attacked the 80 bandits of Mount Kunimi, routed and slew them. It was in this campaign that the emperor fully resolved on victory made these verses saying, like the Shita-dami, which creep round the great rock of sea and isle. Like Shita-dami, which creep around the great rock of the sea of Issei, where blows the divine wind, like the Shita-dami. My boys, my boys, we will creep around and smite them utterly and smite them utterly. In this poem by the great rock is intended the hill of Kunimi. After this, the band which remained was still numerous and their disposition could not be fathomed. So the emperor privately commanded Michino Omi no Mikoto, saying, do thou take with thee the Oho-kume and make a great muro at the village of Osaka. Prepare a copious banquet to invite the enemy to it and then capture them. Michino Omi no Mikoto, thereupon, in obedience to the emperor's sacred behest, dug a muro at Osaka and having selected his bravest soldiers, stayed therein, mingled with the enemy. He secretly arranged with them, saying, when they have got tipsy with sake, I will strike up a song. Do you, when you hear the sound of my song, all at the same time stab the enemy? Having made this arrangement, they took their seats and the drinking bout proceeded. The enemy, unaware that there was any plot, abandoned themselves to their feelings and promptly became intoxicated. Then Michino Omi no Mikoto struck up the following song. At Osaka in the great muro house, though man and plenty enter in stay, we the glorious sons of warriors, wielding our mallet heads, wielding our stone mallets, will smite them utterly. Now, when our troops heard this song, they all drew at the same time their mallet headed swords and simultaneously slew the enemy so that there were no eaters left. The Imperial Army was greatly delighted. They looked up to heaven and laughed. Therefore he made a song saying, though folks say that one ye mishi is a match for a hundred men, they do not so much as resist. The practice according to which at present time, the kume sings this and then laugh aloud, had this origin. Again he sang saying, oh, now is the time, oh, now is the time, ahab shah, even now my boys, even now my boys. All these songs were sung in accordance with the secret behest of the emperor. He had not presumed to compose them with his own motion. Then the emperor said, it is the part of a good general when victorious to avoid arrogance. The chief brigands have now been destroyed, but there are 10 bands of villains of a similar stamp who are disputatious. Their disposition cannot be ascertained. Why should we remain for a long time in one place? By so doing we could not have control over emergencies. So he removed his camp to another place. 11th month, seventh day. The Imperial Army proceeded in great force to attack the Hiko of Shiki. First of all the emperor sent a messenger to summon Shiki the elder, but he refused to obey. Again the Yatakarasu was sent to bring him. When the crow reached his camp it cried to him, saying, the child of the heavenly day descends for thee, haste, haste. Shiki the elder was enraged at this and said, just when I heard that the conquering deity of heaven was coming, I was indignant at this. Why shouldst thou, a bird of the crow tribe, utter such an abominable cry? So he drew his bow and aimed at it. The crow forthwith fled away, and next proceeded to the house of Shiki the younger, where it cried, saying, the child of the heavenly deity summons thee, haste, haste. Then Shiki the younger was afraid and changing countenance said, oh thy servant, hearing of the approach of the conquering deity of heaven, is full of dread, morning and evening. Well has thou cried to me, oh crow? He straightway made eight leaf platters on which he disposed food and entertained the crow. Accordingly in obedience to the crow, he proceeded to the emperor and informed him, saying, my elder brother, Shiki the elder, hearing of the approach of the child of the heavenly deity, forthwith assembled eighty bandits and provided arms with which he is about to do battle with thee. It will be well to take measures against him without delay. The emperor accordingly assembled his generals and inquired of them, saying, it appears that Shiki the elder has now rebellious intentions. I summoned him, but again he will not come. What is to be done? The general said, Shiki the elder is a crafty knave. It will be well, first of all, to send Shiki the younger to make matters clear to him, and at the same time to make explanations to Kuroji the elder and Kuroji the younger. If after that they still refuse submission, it will not be too late to take war-like measures against them. Shiki the younger was accordingly sent to explain to them their interests. But Shiki the elder and the others adhered to their foolish design and would not consent to submit. Then Shiki Netsuhiko advised as follows, Let us first send out our febler troops by the Osaka road. When the enemy sees them, he will assuredly proceed thither with all his best troops. We should then straightway urge forward our robust troops and make straight for the Sumizaka. Then with the water of the river Uda, we should sprinkle the burning charcoal and suddenly take them unawares when they cannot fail to be routed. The emperor approved this plan and sent out the febler troops towards the enemy who thinking that a powerful force was approaching awaited them with all their power. Now up to this time whenever the imperial army attacked they invariably captured and when they fought they were invariably victorious so that the fighting men were all wearied out. Therefore the emperor to comfort the hearts of his leaders and men struck off this first. As we fight going forth and watching from between the trees about Inasa we are famished. The keepers of Comorats, birds of the island, come now to our aid. In the end he crossed Sumizaka with the stronger troops and going round by the rear, attack them from two sides and put them to the route killing their chieftains, Shiki the Elder and the others. Third month, seventh day. The emperor made an order saying, during the six years that our expedition against the east has lasted owing to my reliance on the majesty of imperial heaven the wicked bands have met death. It is true that the frontier lands are still unpurified and that a remnant of evil is still refractory but in the region of the central land there is no more wind and dust. Truly we should make a vast and spacious capital on planet great and strong. At present things are in a crude and obscure condition and the people's minds are unsophisticated. They roost in nests or dwell in caves. Their manners are simply what is customary. Now if a great man were to establish laws justice could not fail to flourish. And even if some gain should accrue to the people in what way would this interfere with the sages' action? Moreover it will be well to open up and clear the mountains and forests and to construct a palace. Then I may reverently assume the precious dignity and so give peace to my good subjects. Above I should then respond to the kindness of the heavenly powers in granting me the kingdom and below I should extend the line of imperial descendants and foster right-mindedness. Thereafter the capital may be extended so as to embrace all the six cardinal points and the eight cords may be covered so as to form a roof. Will this not be well? When I observe the Kashiha Bara plain which lies southwest of Mount Unebi it seems the center of the land. I must set it in order. Accordingly he and this month commanded officers to set about the construction of an imperial residence. Year Kanoya Saori, autumn eighth month, 16th day. The emperor intending to appoint a wife sought a fresh children of noble families. Now there was a man who made representation to him saying, there is a child who was born to Kotoshiro Nushi no kami by his union with Tamakushi Hime, daughter of Mizofuhi Nino kami of Mishima. Her name is Hime Tatara Itsuzuhime no Mikoto. She is a woman of remarkable beauty. The emperor was rejoiced and on the 24th day of the ninth month he received Hime Tatara Itsuzuhime no Mikoto and made her his wife. Year Kanoto Tori, spring first month, first day. The emperor assumed the imperial dignity in the palace of Kashiha Bara. This year is reckoned the first year of his reign. He honored his wife by making her empress. The children born to him by her were Kami Yawii Mimi no Mikoto and Kami Nuna Gaha Mimi no Mikoto. Therefore there is an ancient saying in praise of this as follows. In Kashiha Bara in Unebi he mightily established his palace pillars on the foundation of the bottom rock and reared aloft the cross-route timbers of the plain of high heaven. The name of the emperor who thus began to rule the empire was Kami Yamoto Iharebiko Ohodemi. Fourth year spring second month, 23rd day. The emperor issued the following decree. The spirits of our imperial ancestors, reflecting their radiance down from heaven, illuminate and assist us. All our enemies have now been subdued and there is peace within the seas. We ought to take advantage of this to perform sacrifice to the heavenly deities and therewith develop filial duty. He accordingly established spirit terraces among the Tomi Hills which were called Kamitsu Ono Kakihara and Shimotsu Ono No Kakihara. There he worshiped his imperial ancestors, the heavenly deities. Seventy-sixth year spring, third month, eleventh day. The emperor died in the palace of Kashiha Bara. His age was then 127. The following year, autumn the twelfth day of the ninth month, he was buried in the Misa-sigi northeast of Mount Unebi in the section 17. Section 18 of The Great Events, volume one. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox.org. The Great Events by Famous Historians, volume one, edited by Charles F. Horn, Rossiter Johnson, and John Roode. The Foundation of Buddhism, B.C. 623. Thomas William Rhys Davids. Not so many years ago, at the time when Buddhism first became known in Europe through philosophic writings of about six centuries after Buddha, then newly translated, it caused amazement that a religion which had brought 300 millions of people under its sway should acknowledge no God. But the religion of Buddha during a thousand years of practice by the Hindus is entirely different from the representations given us in these translations. As shown by the base reliefs covering the ancient monuments of India, this religion changed by modern scientists into a belief in atheism is in fact of all religions the most polytheistic. In the first Buddhist monuments dating back 18 to 20 centuries, the reformer simply figures as an emblem. The imprint of his feet, the figure of the bow tree, under which he entered the state of supreme wisdom, are worshiped. And though he disdained all gods and only sought to teach a new code of morals, we shortly see Buddha himself depicted as a God. In the early stages, he is generally represented as a lone but gradually appears in the company of the Brahmin gods. He is finally lost in a crowd of gods and becomes nothing more than an incarnation of one of the Brahmin deities. From that time, Buddhism has been practically extinct in India. This transformation took a thousand years to bring about. During part of this great interval, Buddha was being worshiped as an all-powerful God. Legends are told of his appearance to his disciples and of favors he granted them. It has been said that Buddha tried to set aside the laws of caste. This is an error. Neither did he attempt to break the Brahmanic pantheon. Buddhism, which today is the religion of 300 million people, about one fifth of the world's inhabitants toward the seventh or eighth century of our era almost entirely disappeared from its birthplace India whence it had spread over the rest of Asia, China, Russian Tartary, Burma, et cetera. Only the two extreme frontiers of India, Nepal in the North and Cylon in the South now practice the Buddhist cult. Gotama Buddha left behind him no written works. The Buddhists believe that he composed works which his immediate disciples learned by heart and which were committed to writing long afterward. This is not impossible as the Vedas were handed down in this manner for many hundreds of years. There was certainly an historical basis for the Buddhist legend. In fact, the legends grouped themselves around a number of very distinct occurrences. At the end of the sixth century BC, those Aryan tribes sprung from the same stem as our own ancestors who have preserved for us in their Vedic songs, so precious a relic of ancient thought and life had pushed on beyond the five rivers of the Punjab and were settled far down into the Valley of the Ganges. They had given up their nomadic habits, dwelling in villages and towns, their wealth being inland, produce and cattle. From democratic beginnings, the whole nation had gradually become bound by an iron system of caste. The country was split up into little sections, each governed by some petty despot and harassed by internessing feuds. Religion had become a debasing ritualism with charms and incantations, fear of the influence of the stars and belief in dreams and omens. The idea of the existence of a soul was supplemented by the doctrine of transmigration. The priests were well-meaning, ignorant and possessed of a sincere belief in their own divinity. The religious use of the Vedas and the right to sacrifice were strictly confined to the Brahmins. There were traveling logicians, anchorites, ascetics and solitary hermits. Although the ranks of the priesthood were closed against intruders, still a man of lower caste might become a religious teacher and reformer. Such were the conditions which welcomed Gotama Buddha. 100 miles northeast of Benares at Kapila Vastu, on the banks of the river Rohini, the modern Kohana, there lived about 500 years before Christ, a tribe called Sakyas. The peaks of the mighty Himalayas could be seen in the distance. The Sakyas frequently quarreled with the Koleans, a neighboring tribe, over their water supplies from the river. Just now the two clans were at peace, and two daughters of the Raja of the Koleans were wives of Sudhodana, the Raja of the Sakyas. Both were childless. This was deemed a very great misfortune among the Aryans, who thought that the star of a man's existence after death depended upon ceremonies to be performed by his heir. There was great rejoicing, therefore, when in about the 45th year of her age, the elder sister promised her husband a son. In due time she started with the intention of being confined at her parents' house, but it was on the way, under the shade of some lofty satin trees in a pleasant grove called Lumbini, that her son, the future Buddha, was unexpectedly born. The mother and child were carried back to Sudhodana's house, and there, seven days afterward, the mother died, but the boy found a careful nurse in his mother's sister, his father's other wife. Many marvelous stories have been told about the miraculous birth and precocious wisdom and power of Gotama. The name Siddhartha is said to have been given him as a child, Gotama being the family name. Numerous were his later titles, such as Sakyasinha, the lion of the tribe of Sakya. Sakya Muni, the Sakya sage. Sugata, the happy one. Satta, the teacher. Gina, the conqueror. Bagava, the blessed one, and many others. In his 20th year, he was married to his cousin Yasodara, daughter of the Raja of Kohli. Devoting himself to home pleasures, he was accused by his relations of neglecting those manly exercises necessary for one who might at any time have to lead his people in war. Gotama heard of this and appointed a day for a general tournament, at which he distinguished himself by being easily the first at all the trials of skill and prowess, thus winning the good opinions of all the clansmen. This is the solitary record of his youth. Nothing more is heard of him until, in his 29th year, Gotama suddenly abandoned his home to devote himself entirely to the study of religion and philosophy. It is said that an angel appeared to him in four visions, a man broken down by age, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and lastly, a dignified hermit. Each time, Chana, his charioteer, told him that decay and death were the fate of all living beings. The charioteer also explained to him the character and aims of the ascetics exemplified by the hermit. Thoughts of the calm life of the hermit strongly stirred him. One day, the occasion of the last vision, as he was entering his chariote to return home, news was brought to him that his wife Yasodara had given birth to a son, his only child, who was called Rahula. This was about 10 years after his marriage. The idea that this new tie might become too strong for him to break seems to have been the immediate cause of his flight. He returned home thoughtful and sad. But the people of Kapilavastu were greatly delighted at the birth of the young heir, their Rajas' only grandson. Gautama's return became an ovation and he entered the town amid a general celebration of the happy event. Amid the singers was a young girl, his cousin, whose song contained the words, happy the father, happy the mother, happy the wife of such a son and husband. In the word happy, there was a double meaning. It meant also freed from the chains of sin and of existence, saved. In gratitude to one who at such a time reminded him of his higher duties, Gautama took off his necklace of pearls and sent it to her. She imagined that she had won the love of young Siddhartha, but he took no further notice of her. That night the dancing girls came, but he paid them no attention and gradually fell into an uneasy slumber. At midnight he awoke and sent Chana for his horse. While waiting for this deed, Gautama gently opened the door of the room where Yasodara was sleeping, surrounded by flowers with one hand on the head of her child. After one loving, fond glance, he tore himself away. Accompanied only by Chana, he left his home and wealth and power, his wife and only child behind him to become a penniless wanderer. This was the great renunciation. There follows a story of a vision. Mara, the great tempter, the spirit of evil appears in the sky, urging Gautama to stop. He promises him a universal kingdom over the four great continents if he will but give up his enterprise. The tempter does not prevail, but from that time he followed Gautama as a shadow, hoping to seduce him from that right way. All night Gautama rode and at the dawn when beyond the confines of his father's domain dismounts. He cuts off his long hair with his sword and sends back all his ornaments and his horse by the faithful charioteer. Seven days he spends alone beneath the shade of a mango grove and then fares onward to Rajogriha, the capital of Magadha. This town was the seat of Bimbasara, one of the most powerful princes in the eastern valley of the Ganges. In the hillside caves near at hand were several hermits. To one of these Brahmin teachers, Alara, Gautama attached himself and later to another named Udrakha. From these he learned all that Hindu philosophy could teach. Still unsatisfied, Gautama next retired to the jungle of Uruvela on the most northerly spur of the Viyathya range of mountains near the present temple of Buddha Gaya. Here for six years he gave himself up to the severest penance until he was wasted away to a shadow by fasting and self-mortification. Such self-control spread his fame like the sound of a great bell hung in the skies. But the more he fasted and denied himself, the more he felt himself a prey to a mental torture worse than any bodily suffering. At last one day, when walking slowly up and down, lost in thought, through extreme weakness, he staggered and fell to the ground. His disciples thought he was dead, but he recovered. Despairing of further profit from such rigorous penance, he began to take regular food and gave up his self-mortification. At this, his disciples forsook him and went away to Benares. In their opinion, mental conquest lay only through bodily suppression. There now ensued a second crisis in Gautama's career which culminated in his withstanding the renewed attacks of the tempter after violent struggles. Soon after, if not on the very day when his disciples had left him, he wandered out toward the banks of the Neyarajara, receiving his morning meal from the hands of Sujutta, the daughter of a neighboring villager, and sat down to eat it under the shade of a large tree, Ficus religiosa, called from that day the sacred bow tree or tree of wisdom. He remained there all day long, pondering what next to do. All the attractions of the luxurious home he had abandoned rose up before him most alluringly. But as the day ended, his lofty spirit had won the victory. All doubts had lifted as mists before the morning sun. He had become Buddha, that is, enlightened. He had grasped the solution of the great mystery of sorrow. He thought having solved its causes and its cure, he had gained the haven of peace and believed that in the power over the human heart of inward culture and of love to others, he had discovered a foundation which could never be shaken. From this time, Gotama claimed no merit for penances. A feeling of great loneliness possessed him as he arrived at his psychological and ethical conclusions. He almost disbared of winning his fellow men to his system of salvation, salvation merely by self-control and love without any of the rights, ceremonies, charms or incantations of the Hindu religion. The thought of mankind otherwise, as he imagined, utterly doomed and lost made Gotama resolve at whatever hazard to proclaim his doctrine to the world. It is certain that he had a most intense belief in himself and his mission. He had intended first to proclaim his new doctrine to his old teachers, Alara and Udraka, but finding that they were dead, he proceeded to the deer forest near Benares where his former disciples were then living. In the cool of the evening, he enters the deer park near the city, but his former disciples resolve not to recognize him as a master. He tells them that they are still in the way of death, whereas he has found the way of salvation and can lead them to it having become a Buddha. And as they reply with objections to his claims, he explains the fundamental truths of his system and principles of his new gospel, which the aged Kondanya was the first to accept from his master's lips. This exposition is preserved in the Dhammakaka Pavatana Sutta, the sutra of the foundations of the kingdom of righteousness. Gotama Buddha taught that everything corporeal is material and therefore impermanent. Man in his bodily existence is liable to sorrow, decay and death. The reign of unholy desires in his heart produces unsatisfactory longings, useless weariness and care. Attempted purification by oppressing the body is only wasted effort. It is the moral evil of the heart which keeps a man chained down in the degraded state of bodily life which binds him in a union with the material world. Virtue and goodness will only ensure him for a time and in another birth a higher form of material life. From the chains of existence only the complete eradication of all evil will set him free. But these ideas must not be confused with Christian beliefs. For Buddhism teaches nothing of any immaterial existence. The foundations of its creed have been summed up in the four great truths which are as follows. One, that misery always accompanies existence. Two, that all modes of existence of man or animals in death or heaven result from passion or desire, tanha. Three, that there is no escape from existence except by destruction of desire. Four, that this may be accomplished by following the fourfold way to nirvana. The four stages are called the paths, the first being an awakening of the heart. The first enemy which the believer has to fight against is sensuality and the last is unkindliness. Above everything is universal charity. Till he has gained that, the believer is still bound. His mind is still dark. True enlightenment, true freedom are complete only in love. The last great reward is nirvana, eternal rest or extinction. For 45 years, Gotama taught in the Valley of the Ganges. In the 20th year, his cousin Ananda became a mendicant and attended on Gotama. Another cousin, however, stirred up some persecution of the great teacher and the oppositions of the Brahmins had to be faced. There are clear accounts of the last few days of Gotama's life. On a journey toward Kusinagara, he had rested in a grove at Pawa, presented to the society by a goldsmith of that place named Chunda. After a midday meal of rice and pork prepared by Chunda, the master started for Kusinagara, but stopped to rest at the river Kukusta. Feeling that he was dying, he left a message for Chunda, promising him a great reward in some future existence. He died at the river Kukusta, near Kusinagara, teaching to the last. Gotama's power arose from his practical philanthropy. His philosophy and ethics attracted the masses. He did not seek to found a new religion, but thought that all men would accept his form of the ancient creed. It was his society, the Sangha or Buddhist order, rather than his doctrine, which gave to his religion its practical vitality. The following lines, filled with the poetic beauty of the Orient, are taken from the last spoken words of the great founder of Buddhism and the book of the great decease. They give a clue to the cult of that religion and breathe the spirit of nirvana in every scintillating sentence. As nearly as may be, the translation is a literal one, done by Reese Davids, the world's greatest living authority on this subject. Now the blessed one addressed the venerable Ananda and said, it may be Ananda, that in some of you the thought may arise, the word of the master is ended, we have no teacher more. But it is now thus Ananda that you should regard it. The truths and the rules of the order which I have set forth and laid down for you all, let them, after I am gone, be the teacher to you. Ananda, when I am gone, address not one another in the way in which the brethren have heretofore addressed each other with the epithet that is of avusso friend. A younger brother may be addressed by an elder with his name or his family name or the title friend, but an elder should be addressed by a younger brother as Lord or as venerable sir. When I am gone, Ananda, let the order, if it should so wish, abolish all the lesser and minor precepts. When I am gone, Ananda, let the higher penalty be imposed on brother Khanna. But what, Lord, is the higher penalty? Let Khanna say whatever he may like, Ananda. The brethren should neither speak to him nor exhort him nor admonish him. Then the blessed one addressed the brethren and said, it may be, brethren, that there may be doubt or misgiving in the mind of some brother as to the Buddha or the truth or the path or the way. Inquire, brethren, freely. Do not have to reproach yourselves afterward with the thought our teacher was face to face with us and we could not bring ourselves to inquire of the blessed one when we were face to face with him. And when he had thus spoken, the brethren were silent. And again, the second and the third time the blessed one addressed the brethren and said, it may be, brethren, that there may be doubt or misgiving in the mind of some brother as to the Buddha or the truth or the path or the way. Inquire, brethren, freely. Do not have to reproach yourselves afterward with the thought our teacher was face to face with us and we could not bring ourselves to inquire of the blessed one when we were face to face with him. And even the third time the brethren were silent. Then the blessed one addressed the brethren and said, it may be, brethren, that you put no questions out of reverence for the teacher. Let one friend communicate to another. And when he had thus spoken, the brethren were silent. And the venerable Ananda said to the blessed one, how wonderful a thing is it, Lord, and how marvelous. Verily, I believe that in this whole assembly of the brethren, there is not one brother who has any doubt or misgiving as to the Buddha or the truth or the path or the way. It is out of the fullness of faith that thou hast spoken, Ananda. But, Ananda, the Tathagata knows for certain that in this whole assembly of the brethren, there is not one brother who has any doubt or misgiving as to the Buddha or the truth or the path or the way. For even the most backward, Ananda, of all these 500 brethren has become converted and is no longer liable to be born in a state of suffering and is assured of final salvation. Then the blessed one addressed the brethren and said, behold now, brethren, I exhort you, saying, decay is inherent in all component things. Work out your salvation with diligence. This was the last word of the Tathagata. Then the blessed one entered into the first stage of deep meditation and rising out of the first stage, he passed into the second and rising out of the second, he passed into the third and rising out of the third stage, he passed into the fourth and rising out of the fourth stage of deep meditation, he entered into the state of mind to which the infinity of space is alone present and passing out of the mere consciousness of the infinity of space, he entered into the state of mind to which nothing at all was specially present and passing out of the consciousness of no special object, he fell into a state between consciousness and unconsciousness and passing out of the state between consciousness and unconsciousness, he fell into a state in which the consciousness both of sensations and of ideas had wholly passed away. Then the venerable Ananda said to the venerable Anuruda, oh my Lord, oh Anuruda, the blessed one is dead. Nay, brother Ananda, the blessed one is not dead, he has entered into that state in which both sensations and ideas have ceased to be. Then the blessed one passing out of the state in which both sensations and ideas have ceased to be entered into the state between consciousness and unconsciousness and passing out of the state between consciousness and unconsciousness, he entered into the state of mind to which nothing at all is specially present and passing out of the consciousness of no special object, he entered into the state of mind to which the infinity of thought is alone present and passing out of the mere consciousness of the infinity of thought, he entered into the state of mind to which the infinity of space is alone present and passing out of the mere consciousness the infinity of space, he entered into the fourth stage of deep meditation. And passing out of the fourth stage, he entered into the third. And passing out of the third stage, he entered into the second. And passing out of the second, he entered into the first. And passing out of the first stage of deep meditation, he entered the second. And passing out of the second stage, he entered into the third. And passing out of the third stage, he entered into the fourth stage of deep meditation. And passing out of the last stage of deep meditation, he immediately expired.